CH1. India – Geographical Features and their Impact on History

• History is said to have two eyes — chronology (time) and geography (space), both crucial in understanding the historical process.

• A country’s geography largely influences its historical events.

• Studying Indian geographical features helps in better understanding of India’s history.

• The Indian subcontinent is a clearly defined geographical unit.

• It is divided into three major regions: the Himalayan Mountains, the Indo-Gangetic Plains, and the Southern Peninsula.

• The subcontinent includes five countries: India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal, and Bhutan.

• India is the largest country among them, consisting of twenty-eight states and six Union Territories.

• According to the 2001 Census, India’s population is over one hundred crores.

The Himalayan Mountains

• The Himalayan Mountains are located in the north of India, extending from the Pamir in the extreme northwest towards the northeast.

• The range is nearly 2560 kilometres long with an average breadth of 240 to 320 kilometres.

• The highest peak is Mount Everest, standing at 8869 metres.

• The Himalayas act as a natural wall, protecting India from the cold arctic winds from Siberia via Central Asia, keeping northern India’s climate fairly warm year-round.

• The Himalayan region is mostly inhospitable in winter and generally covered with snow.

• Though seen as a natural barrier, passes in the northwest such as Khyber, Bolan, Kurram, and Gomal in the Hindukush, Sulaiman, and Kirthar ranges provided easy routes between India and Central Asia.

• These passes facilitated a continuous flow of traffic since prehistoric times for invaders, immigrants, missionaries, and merchants.

• Invaders such as the Indo-Aryans, Indo-Greeks, Parthians, Sakas, Kushanas, Hunas, and Turks entered India through these passes.

• The Swat valley was another important route, through which Alexander of Macedon entered India.

• The passes promoted trade and cultural contacts between India and Central Asia.

• To the north of Kashmir lies the Karakoram Range, home to the second highest peak, Mount Godwin Austen.

• This part of the Himalayas is high and snow-covered in winter; the Karakoram highway via Gilgit connects to Central Asia but had little communication historically.

• The Kashmir valley, surrounded by high mountains, is accessible through several passes and is unique for its tradition and culture.

• Nepal is a small valley at the foot of the Himalayas, accessible from the Gangetic plains via several passes.

• In the east, the Himalayas extend to Assam with important ranges like Pat Koi, Nagai, and Lushai.

• These eastern hills are covered with thick forests due to heavy rainfall and remain mostly inhospitable.

• The mountains of northeast India are difficult to cross, leaving many areas in relative isolation.

The Indo-Gangetic Plain

• The Indo-Gangetic plain is irrigated by three major rivers: the Ganges, Indus, and Brahmaputra.

• This plain is highly fertile and productive due to alluvial soil deposited by these rivers and their tributaries.

• The Indus river rises beyond the Himalayas with major tributaries: Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Sutlej, and Beas.

• The Punjab plains benefit from the Indus river system; “Punjab” means land of five rivers.

• Sind is located in the lower valley of the Indus. The Indus plain is known for its fertile soil.

• The Thar Desert and Aravalli hills lie between the Indus and Gangetic plains; Mount Abu (5650 ft.) is the highest point in the Aravalli hills.

• The Ganges river rises in the Himalayas, flows south then east; the Yamuna river flows parallel and joins the Ganges.

• The land between the Ganges and Yamuna is called doab, meaning land between two rivers.

• Important tributaries of the Ganges include Gomati, Sarayu, Ghagra, Gandak.

• In eastern India, the Ganges plain merges with the Brahmaputra plains.

• The Brahmaputra river rises beyond the Himalayas, flows across Tibet, and through northeast India’s plains, forming many islands as a slow-moving river.

• The Indo-Gangetic plain contributed to the rise of many urban centers, especially on river banks or river confluences.

• The Harappan culture flourished in the Indus valley; the Vedic culture prospered in the western Gangetic plain.

• Important cities on the Gangetic plain include Banares, Allahabad, Agra, Delhi, and Pataliputra.

• Pataliputra, at the confluence of the Son river and Ganges, was an ancient capital for the Mauryas, Sungas, Guptas, and other kingdoms.

• Delhi is the most important city in the western Gangetic plain, near which many decisive battles such as Kurukshetra, Tarain, and Panipat were fought.

• The fertile Indo-Gangetic plain was a major attraction for foreign invaders; the Ganga-Yamuna doab was highly contested.

• Rivers in this region served as arteries of commerce and communication.

• In ancient times, due to difficulty in making roads, transport of men and materials was mainly by boats.

• The importance of rivers for communication continued until the time of the East India Company.

The Southern Peninsula

• The Vindhya and Satpura mountains, along with the Narmada and Tapti rivers, form the great dividing line between northern and southern India.

• The plateau south of the Vindhya Mountains is called the Deccan plateau, composed mainly of volcanic rock, different from the northern mountains.

• Volcanic rocks of the Deccan plateau are easier to cut, resulting in many rock-cut monasteries and temples.

• The Deccan plateau is flanked by the Eastern Ghats and Western Ghats.

• The Coromandel Coast lies between the Eastern Ghats and the Bay of Bengal.

• The Western Ghats run along the Arabian Sea; the coastal lands here are known as Konkan up to Goa and Kanara beyond that.

• The southernmost part of the west coast is called the Malabar Coast.

• Passes in the Western Ghats like Junnar, Kanheri, and Karle linked trade routes to western ports.

• The Deccan plateau served as a bridge between north and south India.

• Dense forests in the Vindhya Mountains caused geographical isolation, preserving southern language and culture intact for a long time.

• The Palghat Pass at the southern end is a passage from the Kaveri valley to the Malabar Coast and was important for Indo-Roman trade in ancient times.

• Anaimudi is the highest peak in the southern peninsula; Doddapetta is another high peak in the Western Ghats.

• The Eastern Ghats are not very high and have several openings due to eastward-flowing rivers into the Bay of Bengal.

• Important port cities on the Coromandel coast include Arikkamedu, Mamallapuram, and Kaveripattanam.

• Major rivers of the southern peninsula mostly run parallel.

• Mahanadi is at the eastern end; Narmada and Tapti flow east to west.

• Rivers like Godavari, Krishna, Tungabhadra, and Kaveri flow west to east, making the plateau fertile for rice production.

• The region between Krishna and Tungabhadra (Raichur Doab) was a contested area between major southern kingdoms.

• The deltaic plains formed by Krishna and Tungabhadra rivers flourished under the Satavahanas during the early Christian era.

• The Kaveri delta is a distinct zone in the far south and was the seat of Chola power.

• The Kaveri basin has a rich tradition, language, and culture flourishing since ancient times.

• The southern peninsula’s long coastline encouraged strong interest in maritime activities.

• Extensive trade and commerce through seaways occurred from the earliest times.

• Mariners from the east reached countries like Jawa, Sumatra, Burma, and Cambodia, spreading Indian art, religion, and culture.

• Commercial and cultural contacts between South India and Greco-Roman countries flourished.

India – A Land of Unity in Diversity

• Ancient India was a melting pot of numerous races including the pre-Aryans, Indo-Aryans, Greeks, Scythians, Hunas, Turks, etc.

• Each ethnic group contributed significantly to the making of Indian culture.

• These peoples mixed so inextricably that none can now be identified in their original form.

• Different cultures mingled through the ages; pre-Aryan or Dravidian terms appear in Vedic texts, and Pali and Sanskritic terms occur in Sangam literature.

• India has been the land of several religions: Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism were born here.

• Despite linguistic, religious, and social diversity, Indians share certain common styles of life, showing deep underlying unity.

• Ancient Indians viewed the subcontinent as one land called Bharatavarsha, named after the tribe Bharatas.

• Ancient poets, philosophers, and writers saw India as an integral unit.

• Political unity was achieved at least twice in history during the Mauryan and Gupta Empires.

• Foreigners recognized India’s unity by naming the country after the Sindhu (Indus) river.

• The word Hind is derived from Sindhu, and the country became known as India (Greek), and Hind in Persian and Arabic.

• Efforts for linguistic and cultural unity were made through ages; in the 3rd century B.C., Prakrit was the lingua franca.

• Asoka’s inscriptions were mostly written in Prakrit.

• Ancient epics like the Ramayana and Mahabharata were studied zealously across India.

• Though originally composed in Sanskrit, these epics were adapted into different local languages.

• Indian cultural values and ideas remained essentially the same throughout the country, despite different forms.

• India emerged as a multi-religious and multi-cultural society.

• The underlying unity, integrity, and plural character of Indian society remain the real strength for the country’s development.