English Industrial Revolution : Causes and Impact on Society

• In the latter half of the 18th century, the machine age began due to scientific inventions enabling large-scale production.

• The domestic production system was replaced by the workshop system, and manufacturing shifted to power-operated machines.

• A modern business network developed, causing unprecedented growth in trade and commerce.

• The term “Industrial Revolution” describes these fundamental and powerful changes, originating in England and spreading worldwide.

• Between 1750 and 1850, the factory system was introduced; steam power was used to run machines, boosting domestic and overseas business through improved transportation.

• The Industrial Revolution is categorized into six areas: (1) engineering development, (2) revolution in iron and steel manufacturing, (3) use of steam and hydropower in textiles, (4) growth of the chemical industry, (5) expansion of coal-mines, and (6) development of transportation means.

• Historian G. W. Southgate described the Industrial Revolution as a shift from manual labour to power-operated machines and a change in industrial organization from home industries to factories.

• The revolution arose from developments in economic organization, technology, and business structure:

  • Economic organization involved access to capital and growth of markets for raw materials and finished goods.

  • Technology focused on reducing human labour through continuous invention.

  • Business structure involved efficient use of land, labour, and capital.

• The Industrial Revolution ended a stagnant, less productive economy, leading to new institutions, values, lifestyles, and outlooks.

• Arnold Toynbee viewed it as an ongoing process since the mid-18th century, with two phases: 1750–1850 and post-1850 continuing to the present.

• Major changes during the Industrial Revolution included:
  (1) Manual production replaced by steam-operated machines.
  (2) Shift from hydropower to steam power, electricity, and natural oil.
  (3) Opening of steel factories to meet iron and steel demand.
  (4) Mechanization of agriculture with large farms replacing small fields.
  (5) Increased use of capital.
  (6) Advances in transportation through steam engines and mechanized ships.
  (7) Significant growth in international trade.

• The Industrial Revolution was linked to four other revolutions:
  (A) Demographic Revolution:

  • England’s population doubled between 1751 and 1821, increasing labour supply and demand for goods.

  • Population growth motivated manufacturers to increase production and innovations.
    (B) Agricultural Revolution:

  • Replaced open scattered fields with large consolidated fields.

  • Expanded agronomy and animal husbandry.

  • Transformed rural folk from independent farmers to agricultural labourers.

  • Increased per capita agricultural productivity.

  • Provided food for growing populations and increased purchasing power, supporting industrial growth.

  • Generated capital for industrialization as landlords invested income in industries.

  • Labourers shifted from agriculture to industry, fulfilling labour demands.
    (C) Commercial Revolution:

  • Created demand for British goods beyond domestic markets.

  • Enabled import of raw materials like cotton from abroad.

  • Profits from foreign trade financed agriculture, mining, technology, and industry.

  • Growth of insurance and banking supported foreign and domestic trade.

  • Industrial cities like London, Liverpool, Manchester, Birmingham, and Glasgow prospered.

  • International trade allowed poorer countries to purchase British goods by selling their raw materials to Britain.
    (D) Transport Revolution:

  • Rapid development of roads, canals, ports, bridges, and railways between 1760 and 1830.

  • Facilitated the growth of capital and accelerated industrialization.