• Imperialism is the practice of establishing rule and dominance over the economic and political life of people outside a country’s own territory.

• This dominance can be achieved by conquest or by setting up colonies.

• The relationship between an imperialistic country and its subjects is based on exploitation.

• Exploitation can occur through direct political control or without it.

• Most countries in Asia and Africa were under imperialistic control until recently, e.g., India was part of the British Empire.

• Some countries were exploited economically without political dominance, called new colonialism.

• Imperialism is the attempt by mercantile countries to establish sovereignty over agricultural countries.

• When a country invades, conquers, and annexes another’s territory, it is a form of imperialism, akin to militarism.

• Lenin stated imperialism is the highest stage of capitalism.

• Charles A. Beard defined imperialism as using government, diplomacy, and territorial acquisition to promote industrial trade and investment, often over other races or peoples.

• Simply, imperialism is the domination of non-European native races by European nations.

• Characteristics of imperialism:

  • Foreign rulers are a minority.

  • They impose the superiority of their race and culture on the majority natives.

  • Natives are often backward or have an inferiority complex and a non-industrial economy.

• Imperialistic age divided into:

  • Ancient or medieval imperialism (e.g., Romans, Arabs, Mongols) — mainly political imperialism confined to own continents due to geographical ignorance and lack of sea routes, lasting till the 14th century.

  • The Renaissance changed this with the invention of the compass, facilitating geographical exploration.

  • After the fall of Constantinople, Spanish and Portuguese sailors discovered new sea routes and lands.

  • Mercantilism and desire for gold drove colonial expansion in the 16th century.

  • By mid-18th century, Portugal, Spain, Britain, and France had large colonial empires.

  • European influence in Africa was mainly coastal; slave traders deported about 5,000 Africans monthly to America.

  • Main objective in Asia was trade, initially controlled by Portuguese, later overtaken by English in India and Dutch in Indonesia.

  • By mid-19th century, Britain consolidated its conquest of India.

• New Imperialism of Europe (19th century):

  • Industrial Revolution brought new economic ideas.

  • Adam Smith advocated laissez-faire, causing decline in mercantilism.

  • Some European colonies declared independence:

    • Dutch annexed Portuguese territories, later lost some to English and French.

    • North America came under British control until 13 colonies declared independence in 1776.

    • Brazil became independent from Portugal in 1822.

    • Spain lost many colonies between 1810-1824.

  • Despite colonial indifference, after 1870, imperialism resurged in Europe.

  • Between 1868-1872, imperial federation movement pushed for British colonial expansion.

  • In France, Paul Leroybeaulieu supported the need for colonies.

  • Germany and Italy entered the colonial race.

  • Industrialization increased demand for colonies to exploit resources and control trade.

  • A competition to capture underdeveloped areas started, leading to division of China and Africa among European nations.

• Colonialism vs Imperialism:

  • For victims, both mean foreign rule, economic exploitation, and cultural dominance.

  • Imperialism implies political control, while colonialism controls social, economic, political, and cultural life of natives.

  • Militarism is essential for imperialism.

  • Imperialism is more formal and aggressive than colonialism.

  • The age of imperialism and colonialism has ended, replaced by new imperialism where former colonies are politically independent but still economically dependent on former imperial powers.

Causes of the Development of New Imperialism

• The nineteenth century conditions favored imperialism, and imperialistic countries justified their conquests as natural and necessary.

• Economic Causes:

  • Surplus Production: Industrial Revolution increased production after 1870; countries like Germany, Italy, USA, England, and France sought new markets to sell goods.

  • Surplus Capital: Accumulated capital from Industrial Revolution sought profitable investment in colonies due to low returns in Europe.

  • Need for Raw Materials: Industrial countries demanded raw materials like rubber, tin, tungsten, manganese, cotton, vegetable oil, and foodgrains, prompting capture of resource-rich colonies.

  • Development of Transportation and Communication: Steamships, railways, telegraph, telephone, postal systems, and refrigeration in ships (since 1880) facilitated trade and control over distant colonies.

  • Pressure of Population: Rapid population growth in Europe caused housing and employment problems, solved partly by settling people in colonies.

• Political Causes:

  • Imperialism resulted from both economic and political needs; nationalists in England, France, Belgium, Portugal, Italy, Germany promoted colonialism.

  • Countries like Italy and Russia entered colonial expansion for political reasons.

  • France first entered Africa, capturing Cyprus and Cape of Good Hope; Italy occupied Libya; England took Egypt under protection.

  • Control of sea routes was vital for ships to replenish coal and water, leading to conquest of strategic islands and establishment of supremacy.

• Other Causes:

  • Merchant Class: Supported imperialism to expand business, find new markets, and sell manufactures including arms; shipping companies and bankers also promoted imperialism.

  • Ardent Nationalism: National pride and desire to expand power fueled imperialism; Germany and Italy sought empires; France wanted to regain lost glory; Britain aimed to maintain and expand empire.

  • Colonies served as military and naval bases; Europeans felt national pride seeing their colonies on world maps.

  • Christian Missionaries: Religion played a role; main goal was preaching Christianity, but missionaries also facilitated empire expansion.

  • National governments used attacks on missionaries as pretext for intervention (e.g., murder of German priests in China led Germany to capture a port).

  • Notable missionaries like Dr. David Livingstone explored Africa and encouraged trade and Christian preaching, aiding imperial expansion.

  • French Cardinal Levigerie’s influence helped France occupy Tunis; Belgian priests helped establish influence in Congo.

  • ‘Divine Holy Task’ of Spreading Civilization: Europeans believed their civilization was superior and saw it as a sacred duty to civilize backward regions, using missionary welfare activities as a pretext for empire expansion.

• Geographical Explorers:

  • Renaissance explorations peaked by late 19th century, aiding imperialism.

  • Notable explorers: Burton, Karl Peters, Spake, Grant, Baker, Henry Morton Stanley, Dr. David Livingstone, Gustav Nachtigal, Du Chaillu, De Brazza.

  • These explorers mapped African rivers like the Nile, Niger, Congo, Zambezi, arousing European interest in colonization.

  • Gustav Nachtigal helped make Cameroon and Togoland German colonies.

  • Stanley’s published works stimulated European desire for colonies.

• Circumstantial Causes Favoring Imperialism in Asia and Africa:

  • No Industrial Revolution in Asia and Africa; skilled artisans produced quality goods but with outdated techniques and small-scale production.

  • These continents were militarily weak and unable to resist superior European military power.

  • Local governments were powerless, feudal, and indifferent to public welfare; no strong nation-states had emerged.

  • Small groups of Westerners thrived and, with government support, gradually took control.

  • By 1870, arable land in Australia was occupied, and the Monroe Doctrine barred Europeans from America, making Asia and Africa prime for exploitation and empire expansion.

  • Europeans thus turned attention especially toward Asia and Africa for colonization and imperial expansion.