Indian Architecture: Architecture refers to the design and construction of buildings. It generally uses a mixture of various types of materials like stone, wood, glass, metal, sand, etc. It involves the study of engineering and engineering mathematics. It requires detailed and accurate measurements.
Sculpture: Sculptures are relatively smaller 3-dimensional works of art. A single piece of the sculpture is usually made of a single type of material. Sculpture involves creativity and imagination and may not depend as heavily on accurate measurements.
Pottery: Pottery is the process and the products of forming vessels and other objects with clay and other ceramic materials, which are fired at high temperatures to give them a hard, durable form. Major types include earthenware, stoneware and porcelain.

Classification of Indian Architecture & Sculpture & Pottery

Ancient India and its Architecture

Harappan Art

Harappan Architecture: The Indus Valley is one of the world’s earliest urban civilizations, along with its contemporaries, Mesopotamia and Ancient Egypt. At its peak, the Indus Civilization may have had a population of well over five million.

What is Extensive Town Planning?

➢ The Great Granary at Harappa: Extensive town planning was the characteristic of this civilization, which is evident from the gridiron pattern for the layout of cities, some with fortifications and elaborate drainage and water management systems.

The Great Granary 

• The grid layout planning of the cities with roads at exact right angles is a modern system that was implemented in the cities of this particular civilization. 
• The houses were built of baked bricks. Bricks of fixed sizes, as well as stone and wood, were also used for building.
• Buildings in the lower area are rather monotonous, being mainly functional rather than decorative.
• The most imposing of the buildings is the Great Bath of Mohenjo-daro. It is 54.86 metres long and 32.91 metres wide and with 2.43 metres thick outer walls. The Bath had galleries and rooms on all sides.
  
  
  Great bath at Mohenjo-Daro
• Another important structure was the Granary complex comprising of blocks with an overall area of 55 x 43 metres. The granaries were intelligently constructed, with strategic air ducts and platforms divided into units.

What are the types of Harappan Sculptures?

➢ Unicorn
Harrappa Unicorn Seal

➢ Pashupati seal

• The standard seal is a square plaque with 2 x 2 square inches(river stone (steatite).
• They were mainly used as a unit of trade and commerce.
• They were also used as an amulet (to ward off the evil).
• They were also used as an educational tool (presence of pie sign).

➢ Beared man 
Sculpture of Indus Valley Civilization➢ Dancing girl
Art Dancing Girl of Mohenjo-daro

• The ‘lost wax technique” was used for making the metal-cast sculptures.
• The buffalo with its uplifted head, back and the sweeping horn was also made.
• Goats are of artistic merit.

➢ Terracotta

• Terracotta is a fire-baked clay and is handmade using the pinching method.
  
  
  Toy carts with wheels

➢ Harappan Pottery

• Potteries were mainly plain, red and black painted.
• Plain pottery is more common than painted ware.
  
  
  Perforated Pottery
• Plain pottery is generally of red clay, with or without a fine red or grey slip. It includes knobbed ware, ornamented with rows of knobs.
• The black painted ware has a fine coating of red slip on which geometric and animal designs are executed in glossy black paint.
• Ports were Used as perforated pottery (large hole at the bottom and small holes all over the wall, and probably was used for straining liquor).

➢ Beads and Ornaments

• Shreds of evidence of dead bodies buried along with ornaments have also been found.
• Harappans were also conscious of fashion. 

What is The Mauryan Art And Architecture?

Mauryan Court Art

1. Mauryan court Art-Palaces
Some of the monuments and pillars belonging to this period are considered as the finest specimens of Indian art. The Mauryan architecture was embalmed in timber, for rocks and stones were not as freely in use then. The art of polishing of wood reached so much perfection during the Mauryan period that master craftsmen used to make wood glisten like a mirror.
In 300 B.C., Chandragupta Maurya constructed a wooden fort 14.48 km long and 2.41km wide, along the Ganges in Bihar. However, only a couple of teak beams have survived from this fort.

➢ Ashoka

• Ashoka was the first Mauryan Emperor who began the stone architecture. The stonework of the Ashokan Period (3rd century B.C.) was of a highly diversified order and comprised of lofty freestanding pillars, railings of the stupas, lion thrones and other colossal figures. While most of the shapes and decorative forms employed were indigenous in origin, some exotic forms show the influence of Greek, Persian and Egyptian cultures.
• The Ashokan period marked the beginning of the Buddhist School of architecture in India. It witnessed the construction of many rock-cut caves, pillars, stupas and palaces. A number of cave-shrines belonging to this period have been excavated in the Barabar and Nagarjuni hills and Sitamarhi in Bihar. The caves are simple in plan and are devoid of all interior decorative carvings. They served as the residences of the monks.

• The Ashokan rock-edict at Dhauli, near Bhubaneshwar, is considered to be the earliest rock-cut sculpture in India. It has a sculpted elephant on the top, which signifies the Emperor’s conversion to Buddhism after his Kalinga victory.

2. Mauryan Court Art-Pillars
➢ Ashokan Pillars

• The monolithic Ashokan pillars are marvels of architecture and sculpture. These were lofty free-standing monolithic columns erected on sacred sites. Each pillar was about 15.24 metres high and weighed about 50 tonnes and was made out of fine sandstone. They carried declarations from the king regarding Buddhism or any other topic.
  
  
  Ashoka Pillar

The pillars have four parts:
(i) The shafts are always plain and smooth, circular in cross-section, slightly tapering upwards and always chilled out of a single piece of stone.
(ii) The capitals have the shape and appearance of a gently arched bell formed of lotus petals.
(iii) The abaci are of two types: square and plain and circular and decorated and these are of different proportions.
(iv) The crowning animals are either seated or standing, always in the round and chiselled as a single piece with the abaci.

The Sarnath pillar is one of the finest pieces of sculpture of the Ashokan period erected in 250 BC. Here, four lions are seated back to back. The four lions symbolize power, courage, confidence and pride. This Lion Capital of Ashoka from Sarnath has been adopted as the National Emblem of India and the wheel “Ashoka Chakra” from its base was placed onto the centre of the National Flag of India. At present the Column remains in the same place where Lion Capital is at the Sarnath Museum. 

3. Mauryan court Art-Stupas

• The stupa is a mound-like structure containing Buddhist relics, typically the ashes of deceased, used by Buddhists as a place of meditation. 
• Ashoka was responsible for the construction of several stupas, which were large halls, capped with domes and bore symbols of the Buddha. 
• The most important ones are located at Bharhut, Bodhgaya, Sanchi, Amravati and Nagarjunakonda.

The stupas built for a variety of reasons, Buddhist stupas are classified based on form and function into five types:
(i) Relic stupa – In which the relics or remains of the Buddha, his disciples and lay saints are interred.
(ii) Object stupa – In which the items interred are objects belonged to the Buddha or his disciples such as a begging bowl or robe, or important Buddhist scriptures.
(iii) Commemorative stupas – Built to commemorate events in the lives of Buddha or his disciples.
(iv) Symbolic stupa – To symbolise aspects of Buddhist theology, for example, Borobudur is considered to be the symbol of “the Three Worlds (dhatu) and the spiritual stages (bhumi) in a Mahayana bodhisattva’s character.”
(v) Votive stupas – Constructed to commemorate visits or to gain spiritual benefits, usually at the site of prominent stupas which are regularly visited.

The shape of the stupa represents the Buddha, crowned and sitting in meditation posture on a lion throne. His crown is the top of the spire; his head is the square at the spire’s base; his body is the vase shape; his legs are the four steps of the lower terrace, and the base is his throne.

The stupa represents the five purified elements:-
(i) The square base represents earth
(ii) The hemispherical dome/vase represents water
(iii) The conical spire represents fire
(iv) The upper lotus parasol and the crescent moon represents air
(v) The sun and the dissolving point represents the element of space 

➢ Sanchi Stupa

• Apart from the ruins of the stupa at Piprahwa (Nepal), the core of stupa No 1 at Sanchi can be considered as the oldest of the stupas.
• Originally built by Asoka, it was enlarged in subsequent centuries. An inscription by the ivory carvers of Vidisha on the southern gateway throws light on the transference of building material from perishable wood and ivory to the more durable stone.

➢ Amaravati Stupa

• Amaravati stupa, built-in 2nd or 1st century BC was probably like the one at Sanchi, but in later centuries it was transformed from a Hinayana shrine to a Mahayana shrine.
• Amaravati stupa is different from the Bharhut and Sanchi stupas. It had free-standing columns surmounted by lions near the gateways. The dome was covered with sculptured panels.
• The stupa had an upper circumambulatory path on the drum as at Sanchi. This path had two intricately carved railings. The stone is greenish-white limestone of the region.

➢ Bharhut Stupa
Remnants of Bharhut Stupa

• The Bharhut stupa may have been established by the Maurya king Asoka in the 3rd century BCE, but many works of art were added during the Sunga period, with many friezes from the 2nd century BCE.
• The stupa (now dismantled and reassembled at Kolkata Museum) contains numerous birth stories of the Buddha’s previous lives or Jataka tales.

➢ Gandhara Stupa

• The Gandhara stupa is a further development of stupas at Sanchi and Bharhut.
• In Gandhara stupas, the base, dome and the hemisphere dome are sculpted. The stupa tapers upward to form a tower-like structure.
• The stupas of Nagarjunakonda in the Krishna valley were very large. At the base, there were brick walls forming wheel and spokes, which were filled with earth. The Maha Chaitya of Nagarjunakonda has a base in the form of Swastika, which is a sun symbol. 

4. Mauryan Popular art-Caves

• Decorated  entrance to barabar caves

• The Mauryan period also saw the firm establishment of rock-cut architecture.
• The notable rock-cut caves carved at Barabar and Nagarjuna hills near Gaya in Bihar are Sudama and Lomus Rishi cave.
• Architecturally, their main interest lies in being the earliest known examples in India of the rock-cut method.
• The facade of the Lomas Rishi cave is decorated with the semicircular chaitya arch as the entrance. The elephant frieze carved in high relief on the chaitya arch shows considerable movement.
• The interior hall of this cave is rectangular with a circular chamber at the back. The entrance is located on the sidewall of the hall.
• The cave was patronised by Ashoka for the Ajivika sect.
  The two important features of the caves of this period were:
  (i) Polishing inside the cave.
  (ii) Development of artistic gateway.

5. Mauryan Popular art-Pottery

• The pottery associated with the Mauryan period consists of many types of wares. But the most highly developed techniques are seen in a special type of pottery known as Northern Black polished ware (NBPW), which was the hallmark of the preceding and early Mauryan Periods.
• The NBPW is made of finely levigated alluvial clay. It can be distinguished from other polished or graphite coated red wares by its peculiar luster and brilliance. It was largely used for dishes and small bowls. 

6. Mauryan Popular Art-Sculpture

• The work of local sculptors illustrates the popular art of the Mauryan Period.
• This consisted of sculpture which probably was not commissioned by the Emperor.
• The patrons of the popular art were the local governors. Large statues of Yaksha and Yakshiniare found at many places like Patna, Vidisha and Mathura.
• These monumental images are mostly in the standing position. One of the distinguishing elements in all these images is their polished surface.
• The depiction of faces is in the full round with pronounced cheeks and physiognomic detail.
• The life-size standing image of a Yakshini holding a chauri (flywhisk) from Didargunj near modern Patna is one of the finest examples of the sculptural tradition of the Mauryan Period.

  

• It is a tall, well proportioned, free-standing sculpture in the round made in sandstone with a polished surface.
• Yakshini is considered a folk goddess in all major religions.

Post Mauryan Art

• The art of this period started reflecting the changing sociopolitical scenario as well.
• The architecture in the form of rock-cut caves and stupas continued, with each dynasty introducing some unique features of their own.
• Similarly, different schools of sculpture emerged and the art of sculpture reached its climax in the post-Mauryan period.

➢ Post Mauryan Period – Architecture
The north and south dynasties made advances in art and architecture in areas like stone construction, stone carving, symbolism and beginning of temple (or chaitya hall-prayer halls) and the monastery (or vihara-residential halls) constructions.

• The period between 2nd century B.C. and 3rd century A.D. marked the beginning of the sculptural idiom in Indian sculpture where the elements of physical form were evolving into a more refined, realistic and expressive style.
• Under these dynasties, the Asokan stupas were enlarged and the earlier brick and woodworks were replaced with stone-works.
• The Sanchi Stupa was enlarged to nearly twice its size in 150 B.C. and elaborate gateways were added later.
• The Sungas reconstructed the railings around the Barhut Stupa and built the toranas or the gateways.
• The Satavahanas constructed a large number of stupas at Goli, Jaggiahpeta, Bhattiprolu, Gantasala, Nagarjunakonda and Amravati.
• During the Kushan period, the Buddha was represented in human form instead of symbols. Buddha’s image in endless forms and replicas became the principal element in Buddhist sculpture during the Kushan period.
• The Kushans were the pioneers of the Gandhara School of Art and a large number of monasteries; stupas and statues were constructed during the reign of Kanishka.
  
  
  Udayagiri  and Khandagiri Caves, Orissa
• They were made under the Kalinga King Kharavela in 1st-2nd century BC near modern-day Bhubaneswar(for Jain monks).
• Udayagiri caves are famous for the Hathigumpha inscription which is carved out in Brahmi script.
• Ranigumpha cave in Udayagiri is double-storied and has some beautiful sculptures.

➢ Post Mauryan period-Sculpture

Three prominent schools of sculpture developed in this period at three different regions of India.
(i) Gandhara School of Art
(ii) Mathura School of Art
(iii) Amravati School of Art

(i) The Gandhara School of Art (50 B.C. to 500 A.D.)

• The Gandhara region extending from Punjab to the borders of Afghanistan was an important centre of Mahayana Buddhism up to the 5th century A.D.
• Owing to its strategic location the Gandhara School imbibed all kinds of foreign influences like Persian, Greek, Roman, Saka and Kushan.
• The Gandhara School of Art is also known as the Graeco-Buddhist School of Art since Greek techniques of Art were applied to Buddhist subjects.
• The most important contribution of the Gandhara School of Art was the evolution of beautiful images of the Buddha and Bodhisattvas, which were executed in black stone and modelled on identical characters of Graeco-Roman pantheon. Hence it is said, “the Gandhara artist had the hand of a Greek but the heart of an Indian.”

What are the important characteristics of Gandhara school are?

• Depiction of Lord Buddha in the standing or seated positions.
• The seated Buddha is always shown cross-legged in the traditional Indian way.
• Rich carving, elaborate ornamentation and complex symbolism.
• Use of Greystone
• The best specimens of Gandhara art are from Jaulian and Dharmarajika stupa at Taxila and Hadda near Jalalabad in modern Afghanistan. The tallest rock-cut statue of Lord Buddha is also located at Bamiyan in modern Afghanistan.

(ii) The Mathura School of Art

The Mathura School of art flourished at the city of Mathura between 1-3 A.D. and was promoted by the Kushans. It established the tradition of transforming Buddhist symbols into human form.

• The important characteristics of Mathura school are: The earliest sculptures of Buddha were made keeping the yaksha prototype in mind.
• They were depicted as strongly built with the right hand raised in protection and the left hand on the waist.
• The figures produced by this school of art do not have moustaches and beards as in the Gandhara Art.
• Spotted Red sandstone mainly used.
• Here along with the Buddha, the kings, the royal family were included in the architecture.
• It not only produced beautiful images of the Buddha but also of the Jain Tirthankaras and gods and goddesses of the Hindu pantheon.
• The Guptas adopted the Mathura School of Art and further improvised and perfected it.

(iii) The Amravati School of Art
Amravati School of Sculpture

The Amravati school of Art evolved during Satavahna period. This school of art developed at Amravati, on the banks of the Krishna River in modern Andhra Pradesh. It is the site for the largest Buddhist stupa of South India. The stupendous stupa could not withstand the ravages of time and its ruins are preserved in the London Museum. This school of art had a great influence on art in Sri Lanka and South-East Asia as products from here were carried to those countries.

In this document you have learnt 

• The grid layout planning of the cities with roads at exact right angles is a modern system that was implemented in the cities of this particular civilization. The houses were built of baked bricks. Bricks of fixed sizes, as well as stone and wood, were also used for building.
• The ‘lost wax technique” was used for making the metal-cast sculptures. The buffalo with its uplifted head, back and the sweeping horn was also made. 
• The Ashokan period marked the beginning of the Buddhist School of architecture in India. It witnessed the construction of many rock-cut caves, pillars, stupas and palaces. A number of cave-shrines belonging to this period have been excavated in the Barabar and Nagarjuni hills and Sitamarhi in Bihar.
• The Sarnath pillar is one of the finest pieces of sculpture of the Ashokan period erected in 250 BC. Here, four lions are seated back to back. The four lions symbolize power, courage, confidence and pride.
• The stupas of Nagarjunakonda in the Krishna valley were very large. At the base, there were brick walls forming wheel and spokes, which were filled with earth. The Maha Chaitya of Nagarjunakonda has a base in the form of Swastika, which is a sun symbol.
• Udayagiri caves are famous for the Hathigumpha inscription which is carved out in Brahmi script. Ranigumpha cave in Udayagiri is double-storied and has some beautiful sculptures.

Gupta Age

Gupta period- Architecture & Sculpture

• Gupta period witnessed a great development in the field of architecture. It is often hailed as the “Golden period of Indian Architecture”. The earlier schools of art continued in this period as well. Besides, a new school of art was developed, called Saranath school.

The characteristic features of this school are:

• Usage of cream-coloured sandstone
• Nakedness was missing, more Sobre
• More refined and decorative background
• Hallow effect

Saranath school

• The standing figure of abundantly ornamented Tara is one of the best specimens of sculptural art of Sarnath School.
• The building of new stupas and enlargement of old ones continued in this period. Dhamekh stupa near Sarnath is an example.
• Development of Temple architecture is one of the greatest achievements of Guptas. The temples of the Gupta period brought the new concept of installing statues of Gods in temples, a practice that did not take place earlier. There was also move towards the use of stone in construction instead of the earlier brick or wood.

Temple architecture Gupta age onwards

Temple Architecture 

Parts of a temple complex

• Jagati – Raised surface, platform or terrace upon which the temple is placed.
• Mandapa/mantapa – Pillared outdoor hall or pavilion for public rituals.
• Antarala – A small anti-chamber or foyer between the garbhagriha (sanctum sanctorum) and the mandapa, more typical of north Indian temples.
• Ardha Mandapa – Intermediary space between the temple exterior and the garba griha (sanctum sanctorum) or the other mandapas of the temple
• Asthana Mandapa – Assembly hall
• Kalyana Mandapa – Dedicated to ritual marriage celebration of the Lord with Goddess
• Maha Mandapa – When there are several mandapas in the temple, it is the biggest and the tallest. It is used for conducting religious discourses.
• Garbhagriha – The part in which the idol of the deity in a Hindu temple is installed i.e.Sanctum sanctorum.The area around is referred as to the Chuttapalam, which generally includes other deities and the main boundary wall of the temple. Typically there is also a Pradikshna area inside the Grbhagriha and one outside, where devotees can take Pradakshinas.
• Sikhara or Vimana – Literally means “mountain peak”, refer to the rising tower over the sanctum sanctorum where the presiding deity is enshrined is the most prominent and visible part of Hindu temples.
• Amalaka – A stone disk, usually with ridges on the rim, that sits atop a temple’s main tower (Sikhara).
• Gopuram – The elaborate gateway-towers of south Indian temples, not to be confused with Shikharas.
• Urushringa – An urushringa is a subsidiary Sikhara, lower and narrower, tied against the main sikhara. They draw the eye up to the highest point, like a series of hills leading to a distant peak.
  
   

At the turn of the first millennium, CE two major types of temples existed, the northern or Nagara style and the southern or Dravida type of temple. They are distinguishable mainly by the shape and decoration of their shikhara.

• Nagara style: The Shikhar is beehive/curvilinear shaped.
• Dravida style: The Shikhar consists of progressively smaller storeys of pavilions.
  
   

  A third style termed Vesara was once common in Karnataka which combined the two styles. This may be seen in the classic Hindu temples of India and Southeast Asia, such as Angkor Wat, Brihadisvara, Khajuraho, Mukteshvara, and Prambanan.

Nagara School

Nagara Temple

Nagara temples have two distinct features

1. In plan, the temple is a square with a number of graduated projections in the middle of each side giving a cruciform shape with a number of re entrant angles on each side.
2. In elevation, a Shikhara, i.e., tower gradually inclined inwards in a convex curve.

The projections in the plan are also carried upwards to the top of the Sikhara and, thus, there is strong emphasis on vertical lines in elevation.

The Nagara style is widely distributed over a greater part of India, exhibiting distinct varieties and ramifications in lines of evolution and elaboration according to each locality.

Examples of Nagara architecture are:
Odisha school

• 8th to 13th century
• Lingaraj temple in Bhubaneshwar
• Sun temple of Kornak (the climax of Nagar style)

Chandela school

• Kandaria Mahadev temple, Kajuraho
• Typical nature is Erotism

Gujarat under Solanki

• Modhera sun temple
• Rajasthan dilwara jain temple

Dravida schools

Dravida Temple

Dravidian style temples consist almost invariably of the four following parts, differing only according to the age in which they were executed:

• The principal part, the temple itself, is called the Vimana. It is always square in plan and surmounted by a pyramidal roof of one or more stories; it contains the cell where the image of the god or his emblem is placed.
• The porches or Mantapas, which always cover and precede the door leading to the cell.
• Gopurams are the principal features in the quadrangular enclosures that surround the more notable temples.
• Pillared halls or Choultries – used for various purposes, and which are the invariable accompaniments of these temples

Besides these, a temple always contains temple tanks or wells for water (used for sacred purposes or the convenience of the priests); dwellings for all grades of the priesthood are attached to it, and other buildings for state or convenience.
Examples: Brihadeshwara temple (Periya kovil) Thanjavur, Temple of gangaikonda cholapuram

Vesara school

Vesara Temple

• The Vesara style is also called as the Badami Chalukyas style. It has the combined features of both Nagara and Dravida style. The main reason behind the combination is the location of Badami Chalukyas, which was at the buffer zone between northern Nagar style and southern Dravida style.
• The Vesara style reduces the height of the temple towers even though the numbers of tiers are retained. This is accomplished by reducing the height of individual tiers. The semi-circular structures of the Buddhist chaityas are also borrowed as in the Durga temple at Aihole.
• Virupaksha temple of Pattadakal is the finest example of Vesara style. The trend started by the Chalukyas of Badami was further refined by the Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta in Ellora, Chalukyas of Kalyani in Lakkundi, Dambal, Gadag etc. And epitomized by the Hoysala empire. The Hoysala temples at Belur, Halebid and Somnathpur are supreme examples of this style.
• The temples built in the Vesara style are found in other parts of India also. They include temples at Sirpur, Baijnath, Baroli and Amarkantak.

  

 Cave architecture before and after Gupta period

The earliest man-made caves date back to the 2nd century BC while the latest date to the 7th century AD. The earlier caves were used by Buddhist and Jain monks as places of worship and residence. Some examples of this type of cave structure are Chaityas and Viharas of Buddhists.

The great cave at Karle is one such example, where great Chaityas and Viharas were excavated. The Karle caves are big in size and the interior is lighted up by great windows.

Other than Buddhist caves many caves of Jains and Hindus were also excavated. Some of the famous and prominent caves are at Nashik, Kanheri, Gaya (Barabar Hills), Bhaja, Nagarjunakonda, Badami, Elephanta and Ellora.

Ajanta Caves

The cave temples of Ajanta are situated north of Aurangabad, Maharashtra. These caves were discovered by the British officers in 1819 AD. The thirty temples at Ajanta are set into the rocky sides of a crescent-shaped gorge in the Sahyadri hills of the Sahyadri ranges. At the head of the gorge is a natural pool which is fed by a waterfall.

Ajanta Caves

• The earlier monuments include both chaitya halls and monasteries. These date from the 2nd to 1st centuries B.C. The excavations once again revived during the reign of the Vakataka ruler Harisena during the 5th century.
• The sculptures contain an impressive array of votive figures, accessory figures, narrative episodes and decorative motifs.
• The series of paintings is unparalleled in the history of Indian art, both for the wide range of subjects and the medium.
• The caves depict a large number of incidents from the life of the Buddha (Jataka Tales).
• Cave number one contains wall frescos that include two great Bodhisattvas, Padmapani and Avalokiteshvara. Other wonderful paintings in Ajanta are the flying apsara, dying princess and Buddha in preaching mode.
  
  
  Padampani

Fresco Mural Paintings inside the Cave

Fresco is a technique of mural painting executed upon freshly – laid lime plaster. Water is used as the vehicle for the pigment and with the setting of the plaster, the painting becomes an integral part of the wall.

Mural Paintings of Ajanta

Ellora Caves

Ellora, Kailash Temple(Cave 16)

Ellora is located at 30 km from the city of Aurangabad, Maharashtra. Ellora has 34 caves that are carved into the sides of a basaltic hill. The caves at Ellora contain some of the finest specimens of cave-temple architecture and exquisitely adorned interiors, built by the Rashtrakuta rulers. Ellora represents the epitome of Indian rock-cut architecture.

• The 12 Buddhist caves, 17 Hindu caves, and 5 Jain caves, built-in proximity, demonstrate the religious harmony prevalent during this period of Indian history.
• The nobility, serenity and grace of Buddha are visible in the Buddhist caves of Ellora.
• Ellora caves also contain images of Vishwakarma, the patron saint of Indian craftsmen.
• The Kailasa temple in Cave 16 is indeed an architectural wonder, the entire structure having been carved out of a monolith.

Kailash Temple

Bhimbetaka Caves

• Bhimbetka is located in the Raisen District of Madhya Pradesh about 45 km to the southeast of Bhopal. Bhimbetka, discovered in 1958 by V.S. Wakankar, is the biggest prehistoric art depository in India. Atop the hill a large number of rock-shelters have been discovered, of which more than 130 contain paintings.

Bhimbetaka Caves

• Excavations in some of the rock-shelters revealed the history of continuous habitation from the early stone age (about 10000 years) to the end of the stone age (c. 10,000 to 2,000 years) as seen from artificially made stone tools and implements like hand-axes, cleavers, scrapers and knives.
• Neolithic tools like points, trapeze and lunate made of chert and chalcedony, besides stone querns and grinders, decorated bone objects, pieces of ochre and human burials were also found here.
  

  Elephanta Caves

  

  Trimurti in the Elephanta Cave

The Elephanta Caves are a network of sculpted caves located on Elephanta Island in Mumbai Harbour. The island, located on an arm of the Arabian Sea, consists of two groups of caves: the first is a large group of five Hindu caves, the second, a smaller group of two Buddhist caves.

• The Hindu caves contain rock cut stone sculptures, representing the Shiva Hindu sect, dedicated to the god Shiva. The caves are hewn from solid basalt rock.
• The 6th century Shiva temple in the Elephanta caves is one of the most exquisitely carved temples in India. The central attraction here is a twenty-foot high bust of the deity in three-headed form. His image symbolizes the fierce, feminine and meditative aspects of the great ascetic and the three heads represent Lord Shiva as Aghori, Ardhanarishvara and Mahayogi.
• Aghori is the aggressive form of Shiva where he is intent on destruction. Ardhanarishvara depicts Lord Shiva as half-man/half-woman signifying the essential unity of the sexes. The Mahayogi posture symbolises the meditative aspect.
• All the caves were also originally painted in the past, but now only traces remain.

Mahakali Caves

Mahakali Caves

• These are rock-cut Buddhist caves situated in the Udayagiri hills, about 6.5 km from Mumbai. These were excavated during 200 BC to 600 AD and are now in ruins. They comprise of 4 caves on the southeastern face and 15 caves on the northwestern face. Cave 9 is the chief cave and is the oldest and consists of a stupa and figures of Lord Buddha.

Kanheri Caves

Located in the western suburbs of Bombay, it is second largest known cave after the Kailasa cave in Ellora and houses a Brahmanical temple dating back to the 6th century AD. Excavated between the 1st and 2nd centuries, the Kanheri is a 109-cave complex located near Borivali National Park in Bombay. The Kanheri caves contain illustrations from Hinayana and Mahayana Buddhism and show carvings dating back to 200 BC.

Jogeshwar Caves

The Jogeshwari Caves are some of the earliest Buddhist cave temples sculptures located in the Mumbai suburb of Jogeshwari, India. The caves date back to 520 to 550 CE. These caves belong to the last stage of the Mahayana Buddhist architecture, which was later taken over by the Hindus.

Karla and Bhaja Caves: About 50-60 kms away from Pune, these are rock-cut Buddhist caves dating back to the 1st and 2nd centuries BC. The caves consist of several viharas and chaityas.

Medieval India

The Indo-Islamic Architecture: Indian architecture took a new shape with the advent of Islamic rule in India towards the end of the 12th century AD. New elements were introduced into the Indian architecture are:

• Use of shapes (instead of natural forms)
• Inscriptional art using decorative lettering or calligraphy
• Inlay decoration and use of coloured marble, painted plaster and brilliantly glazed tiles
• Trabeate order was replaced by arcuate architecture i.e. an arch or dome was adopted as a method of bridging a space. Shikara was replaced by Dome.
• Concept of Minar was introduced for the first time
• Cementing agent in the form of mortar for the first time in the construction of buildings in India
• Use of certain scientific and mechanical formulae which helped not only in obtaining greater strength and stability of the construction materials but also provided greater flexibility to the architects and builders

This amalgamation of the Indian and the Islamic elements led to the emergence of a new style of architecture called the Indo-Islamic Architecture.

Mosques

The mosque or masjid is a representation of Muslim art in its simplest form. The mosque is an open courtyard surrounded by a pillared verandah, crowned off with a dome.

• A mihrab indicates the direction of the qibla for prayer
• Towards the right of the mihrab stands the mimbar or pulpit from where the Imam presides over the proceedings.
• An elevated platform, usually a minaret from where the Faithful are summoned to attend the prayers is an invariable part of a mosque.

Large mosques where the faithful assembles for the Friday prayers are called the Jama Masjid.

Tombs

The tomb or maqbara introduced an entirely new architectural concept. While the masjid was mainly known for its simplicity, a tomb could range from being a simple affair (Aurangzeb’s grave) to an awesome structure enveloped in grandeur (Taj Mahal).

• The tomb usually consists of solitary compartment or tomb chamber known as the Huzrah in whose centre is the cenotaph or zarih. This entire structure is covered with an elaborate dome
• In the underground chamber lies the mortuary or the maqbara, in which the corpse is buried in a grave or qabr
• Normally the whole tomb complex or rauza is surrounded by an enclosure
• The tomb of a Muslim saint is called a dargah.
• Almost all Islamic monuments were subjected to free use of verses from the Holy Koran and a great amount of time was spent in carving out minute details on walls, ceilings, pillars and domes 

The Delhi or the Imperial Style of Indo-Islamic architecture flourished between 1191-1557 AD and covered Muslim dynasties viz., Slave (1191-1246), Khilji (1290-1320), Tughlaq (1320-1413), Sayyid (1414-1444) and Lodi (1451- 1557).

Delhi Sultanate

Timeline

Slave dynasty: This period marks the period of the beginning of Indo – Islamic architecture. During this period mainly existing buildings were converted.

• The earliest construction work was begun by Qutubuddin Aibak, who started erecting monumental buildings of stone on Qila Rai Pithora, the first of the seven historical cities of Delhi.
  
  
  Qutub Minar
• The Qutb Mosque is one such building. Named as the Quwwatul-Islam Masjid, it is considered as the earliest mosque in India.
• Qutub-ud-din Aibak also started the construction of Qutub Minar in 1192 (which was eventually completed by Iltutmish in 1230). Built to commemorate the entry of Islam it was essentially a victory tower. The diameter of the Qutub Minar is 14.32m at the base and about 2.75m at the top. It measures a height of 72.5m and contains a spiral staircase of 379 steps.
• Shamsuddin Iltutmish extended the Quwwat-ul-Islam Masjid and built the tomb of his son Nasiruddin Mohammed, which is locally known as the Sultan Ghari.
• He also started his own tomb (Iltutmish’s Tomb) located in the Qutub Minar complex in 1235 AD.
• The tomb of Balban constructed in 1280 AD represents the first true arch built in India, which is produced by following the scientific system originally formulated by the Roman engineers.

Khilji dynasty

The real development of Indo-Islamic architecture occurred during this period. Red sandstone was widely used and the influence of “Seljuk” tradition can be seen here.

• Allauddin Khilji established the second city of Delhi at Siri and built the Siri fort.
• He also built the Alai Darwaza near the Qutub Minar. The welldecorated Alai Darwaza, which served as an entrance gateway to the mosque at the Qutub complex, marks the evolution of another innovative feature in the Indo-Islamic architecture.
• The Jamaat Khana Masjid near Nizamuddin in Delhi and the Ukha Masjid in Bharatpur in Rajasthan were also built during this period.

Tughlaq dynasty

The rulers of the Tughlaq Dynasty also undertook considerable construction activities, including building three of the seven ancient cities of Delhi. Use of Grey sandstone can be seen during this period. The architecture was focussed on strength, not on the beauty. Hence minimum decoration is seen here. The sloping wall is another characteristic feature of Tughlaq architecture.

• Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq built Tughlaqabad, the third city of Delhi, in 1321-23 AD.
• The Tomb of Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq is an irregular pentagon in its exterior plan and its design is of the pointed or “Tartar” shape and is crowned by a finial resembling the kalasa and amla of a Hindu temple.
• Delhi’s fourth city Jahanpanah was built by Mohammad-bin-Tughlaq in mid-14th century.
• Feroz Shah Tughlaq was undoubtedly the greatest builder among all the rulers of the Tughlaq dynasty. He built Firozabad, Delhi’s fifth city, in 1354 AD. The famous Feroz Shah Kotla ground is the only remnant of its past glory. He is also credited with founding the fortified cities of Jaunpur, Fatehabad and Hisar.
• His construction works were of a uniquely simple style characterised by the use of inexpensive materials.
• It was only Feroze Shah Tughlaq who took up large-scale restoration works and repaired hundreds of monuments, including the Qutub Minar which was damaged by lightning in 1369 AD.
  
   

Sayyid and Lodi dynasty

In the 14th century under the Timurid rulers, Islamic architecture underwent a change. The narrow horseshoe arch was replaced by the true arch, an idea imported directly from Persia. They used wooden beams as supports, and eventually, the four-centred arch minus the beam support came into vogue.

During the Sayyid and the Lodi Dynasties, mainly the constructions of tombs were continued. More than fifty tombs of different sizes were constructed.

Double dome architecture

• The Lodis introduced the concept of double dome built one upon the other, leaving some space in between.
• Two different types of tombs with octagonal and square plans respectively began to be constructed.
• The Tombs of Mubarak Sayyid, Muhammad Sayyid and Sikander Lodi are all of the octagonal type.
• The square tombs are represented by such monuments as the Bara Khan Ka Gumbad, Chota Khan Ka Gumbad, Bara Gumbad.
• The Tomb of Isa Khan, the Tomb of Adham Khan, Moth ki Masjid, Jama Masjid and the Qila-i-Kuhna Masjid belongs to the final phase of the Delhi style of architecture.

PROVINCIAL STYLE – ARCHITECTURE

1) Bengal School of Architecture

• At Gaur the earliest building representing the constructional and ornamental methods of this style is the Dakhil Darwaja built by Barbak Shah (around 1425) as a ceremonial gateway in front of the citadel. It is an imposing structure with a tall arched entrance between vertical pylons on either side and tapering towers on the corners.
• Brick was the chief building material in the alluvial plains of Bengal from early times and remains so even now, the use of stone being limited largely to pillars which were mainly obtained from demolished temples.

Adhuna Masjid

2) Malwa School of Architecture

• It is essentially Arcuate. Some of its original features were the skillful and elegant use of arch with pillar and beam, lofty terraces approached by well-proportioned stairways, impressive and dignified buildings, various colored stones and marbles, and partly by bright colored glazed tiles.
• The minaret is absent in this style.
• Notable Examples are Rani Rupmati pavilion, Ashrafi Mahal, Jahaz Mahal, and Mandu fort.

Jahaz Mahal

Rani Rupmati Pavilion

3) Jaunpur School of Architecture
It was influenced by the buildings of the Tughlaq period, but its typical feature was its bold and forceful character expressed in the huge imposing pro-pylon screens filling the central and side bays of the prayer hall. Sharqi Dynasty developed it hence also called a charqui style. Notable Example is Atala Masjid.

Atala Masjid

4) Bijapur School

• It developed during the reign of Adilshahi. And the most important example is the Gol Gumbaz. The Gol Gumbaz of Bijapur is the mausoleum of Muhammad Adil Shah (1627- 57). It is the largest dome cubicle globally covering a total interior surface of over 1600 sq. metres. 
• Architecturally it is a simple construction, its underground vaults consisting of a square grave chamber and a large single square chamber above ground. The large hemispherical dome surmounting it and then seven storeyed octagonal towers on its corners lend it a unique appearance. 
• Each of its walls on the outside is divided into three recessed arches, the central one paneled, with running brackets – supported Chajja at the cornice. A 3.4 m. wide gallery rests on its interior at the level of the drum. It is known as the whispering gallery, as even a whisper here reverberates like an echo under the dome. The large dome is hemispherical but is covered with a row of petals at the base.

Gol Gumbaz

MUGHAL ARCHITECTURE

The Mughal rulers were visionaries and their personalities reflected in the all-round development of various arts, crafts, music, building, and architecture. The Mughal dynasty was established with the crushing victory of Babar at Panipat in 1526 AD.

Babar

• During his short five-year reign, Babar took considerable interest in erecting buildings, though few have survived.
• The mosque at Kabuli Bagh at Panipat and the Jami Masjid at Sambhal near Delhi, both constructed in 1526, are the surviving monuments of Babar.

Humayun

• Babur’s son Humayun laid the foundation of a city called Dinpanah (“refuge of the faithful”) at the Purana Qila in Delhi, but the city could not be completed.
• Humayun’s tomb, designed in 1564 by his widow Haji Begum, was the real beginning of Mughal architecture in India.

The important characteristics of Humayun’s tomb are:

• Charbagh style.
• Use of red sandstone.
• Use of a round – bulb-like dome.
• Design of the Taj Mahal was modeled on this tomb.

Humayun’s Tomb

Sher Shah

• During his brief reign, Sher Shah built a few monuments. He built the Qila-e-Quhunah (Mosque of the Old Fort) mosque in Delhi. He built the famous Rohtas Fort in Pakistan. He constructed the Sher Shah Suri Masjid in Patna in Afghan style to mark his reign. 
• His period is a transition from Lodhi style to the Mughal style of architecture. He also undertook the re-construction and extension of an old Mauryan route and renamed it as Sadak-e-Azam (Great Road), later called Grand Trunk Road. He ensured the adequate presence of sarais and trees for travellers. 
• Sher Shah Suri’s tomb was built at his birthplace Sasaram. It is made up of red sandstone and is situated inside a lake. The constructions under Sher Shah continued the traditions of the Delhi Sultanate period. After Akbar ascended the throne of Delhi in 1556, the golden period of Mughal art and architecture started.

Akbar

• Architecture flourished during the reign of Akbar. The chief feature of the architecture of Akbar’s time was the use of red sandstone.
• The domes were of the “Lodi” type, while the pillar shafts were many-sided with the capitals being in the form of bracket supports.
• One of the first major building projects was the construction of a huge fort at Agra.
• Creation of an entirely new capital city at Fatehpur Sikri. The buildings at Fatehpur Sikri blended both Islamic and Hindu elements in their architectural style.
• The Buland Darwaza, the Panch Mahal and the Dargah of Salim Chisti are the most imposing of Fatehpur Sikri’s buildings.
• Akbar also built a temple of Govind Dev in Vrindavan.

Amar Singh Gate, Agra Fort

Jahangir

• Jahangir concentrated more on painting and other forms of art than on building and architecture. However, some noteworthy monuments of his time include Akbar’s Tomb at Sikandra near Agra.

Some of the important features of Jahangir’s architecture are:
(i) Persian style, covered with enamelled tiles.
(ii) Usage of marbles and precious gems.
(iii) Usage of white marble and covered in pietra dura mosaic.

• Jahangir is the central figure in the development of the Mughal gardens. The most famous of his gardens is the Shalimar Bagh on the banks of Lake Dal in Kashmir.
• Itimad-ud-Daulah’s Tomb is another important monument built during this period. It was commissioned by Nur Jahan, Jahangir’s wife, for her father Mirza Ghiyas Beg, who had been given the title of Itimad-ud-Daulah (pillar of the state). Mirza Ghiyas Beg was also the grandfather of Mumtaz Mahal. The monument also called a “Jewel box”, was built in White marble.
• The Jahangir’s Tomb at Shahdara near Lahore, built by his wife Nur Mahal, is another outstanding architectural production of this time.

Itmad-ud-daulah’s tomb, Agra

Shah Jahan

The Mughal architecture reached its climax during the reign of Shah Jahan. The single most important architectural change was the substitution of marble for the red sandstone.

• He demolished the austere sandstone structures of Akbar in the Red Fort and replaced them with marble buildings such as the Diwan-i-Am and the Diwan-i-Khas.
• In 1638 he began to lay the city of Shahjahanabad beside the river Jamuna.
• The Red Fort at Delhi represents the pinnacle of centuries of experience in the construction of palace forts.
• Outside the fort, he built the Jama Masjid, the largest mosque in India.
• He built the Jami Masjid at Agra in 1648 in honour of his daughter Jahanara Begum.
• More than all these fine architecture, it is for building the Taj Mahal at Agra, he was remembered often. It was built as a memorial to his beloved wife, Mumtaz Mahal. It is considered the finest example of Mughal architecture, which combines elements from Islamic, Persian, Ottoman Turkish and Indian architectural styles.

Some of the important features of Taj Mahal are:
▪ Use of white marble.
▪ More decoration.
▪ Massive size.
▪ Use of char bagh style.
▪ Use of pietra dura technique.
▪ Tomb building at its climax.

Other Shah Jahan constructions

• Red Fort in Delhi.
• Jama Masjid in Delhi. 
• Shalimar Bagh in Lahore. 
• City of Shahjahanabad.
• Peacock Throne(metalwork).

Aurangazeb

• The architectural projects of Aurangzeb’s reign are represented by the Bibi-ki-Maqbara, the tomb of Aurangzeb’s wife Begum Rabia Durani, a poor replica of the famous Taj Mahal and is also called as Taj Mahal of South India.
• After the death of Aurangzeb, the Mughal architecture started declining. Aurangzeb’s daughters contributed in a small way in carrying forward the Mughal trend of architecture. Zeenat-unnisa Begum built the Zinat-ul-Masjid at Daryaganj in Old Delhi.
• The only significant monument built in the post-Aurangazeb time in Delhi was the Safdar Jung’s Tomb built in 1753 by Mirza Mansoor Khan.

Bibi-ki-Maqbara

Safdar Jung’s Tomb

PROVINCIAL STYLES DURING MUGHALS

1) Sikh Style

Sikh style of architecture developed in the region of modern-day Punjab. The Mughal style of architecture heavily influenced ite. Some of the Sikh school features are the Sikh style of architecture developed in the region of modern-day Punjab. The Mughal style of architecture heavily influenced ite.
Some of the features of the Sikh school are:

• The use of multiple Chhatris or kiosks on the top of the construction.
• Use of shallow cornices.
• The building has fluted domes, which were generally covered by brass and copper guilds for decoration and support. The use of numerous foliations decorated the arches.
• Example: Shri Harmandir Sahib or Golden temple. It was initiated in 1585 and completed by Arjan Dev in 1604.

Harmandir Sahib Golden Temple, Amritsar

2) Rajput Style
The Rajput constructions of the period were also influenced by the Mughal style, but were unique in their constructions’ size and scope. They generally undertook the building of imposing palaces and forts.
Some of the unique features of the Rajput architecture are as follows:

• They introduced the concept of the hanging balcony, which were constructed in all shapes and sizes.
• The chronicles were built in the shape of an arch such that the shadow took the shape of a bow.

Hawa Mahal, Jaipur with hanging balconies

3) Architecture in Kashmir

• Development of Kashmiri architecture can be broadly divided into two important phases: its political rule, early medieval Hindu phase and 14th century onwards Muslim rule.
• No major monuments made before 600 AD exist, except few Buddhist monuments like monastery and stupas, now in ruins, were discovered at Harwan and Ushkar.

Temples in Kashmir
The Kashmiri temple architecture has its unique features suited to local geography and is renowned for its exquisite stone carvings. Due to its location on the important trade routes, the architectural style is inspired by many foreign sources. Temple making reached a great height under the rulers of Karakota dynasty and Utpala dynasty.

The main features of the Kashmir style of architecture are:

• Trefoil arches (Gandhara influence)
• Cellular layout and Enclosed courtyard
• Straight-edged Pyramidal roof
• Column walls (Greek influence)
• Triangular pediment (Greek influence)
• Relatively more number of steps
  
   

➢ Martand Sun Temple

• It is located in Anantnag, Kashmir and was built in 8th century AD under Karkota Dynasty ruler Lalitaditya Muktapida.
• It is considered to be a synthesis of various schools of architecture. There are Gandhara, Chinese and Gupta influence on the monuments. The complex is in the shape of the courtyard, surrounded by columns. The main temple has a pyramidal top and gods like Vishnu, river goddess Ganga and Yamuna, and Sun God.

Martand Sun Temple (Left) and Artistic recreation of Martand Temple (right)

➢ Temples at Awantipora
There are two temples namely Avantiswami for Lord Vishnu and Avantiswara dedicated to Lord Shiva. It was built by the king Awantivarman, the first king of Utpala dynasty, in 9th century AD. The temple is inside a paved courtyard and has four shrines in its four corners. The gateway has two chambers and is carved out eloquently. Roman and Gandharan influence is seen.

➢ Pandrethan Temple
It is also called Meru Vardha Swami and is dedicated to Vishnu, but Shiva images are also there. It was carved out of a single block of stone and has exquisite carvings on its walls. It was made in early 10th century AD and is located near Srinagar. It has a domed roof and arches.

Pandrethan Temple, Kashmir

4) Temples of the Parsi community in India
There are three major types of fire temples of the Parsi faith. The first is Atash Behram, (“Fire of Victory”), second is Adarian, and the third is Atash Dadgah or Dar-e-Mehr. There are eight Atash Behram in India and more than 100 Dadgah, mostly located in Maharashtra and Gujarat.

The exterior is generally kept simple because idea is to hold a sacred fire and Yasna ceremony (prayers) rather than glorification of the faith. It has an inner sanctum where fire is kept. The structures have vents for the smoke to escape. The performance of ceremony is considered to be of the highest order and involves elaborate arrangements. They are performed by the high priests called Dasturs.

Eight Atash Behrams (Fire Temples) in India are:

• Iranshah Atash Behram, Udvada (Gujarat), built-in 8th century.
• Desai Atash Behram in Navsari (Gujarat), built-in 18th century.
• Dadiseth, Wadia, Banaji and Anjuman Atash Behram in Mumbai.
• Modi and Vakil Atash Behram in Surat.

Sun Temples in India:-
Sun has been revered since Vedic age with many hymns written for the celestial body. It is worshipped as Aditya or Surya. There are many rituals in practice for worshipping the deity. Many temples have also been constructed with Sun as the chief deity. Sun temples are even found in Japan, Egypt, China, etc. Some of the Rajput clans, namely “Suryavanshi”, worship Sun and claim themselves to be the deity’s descendants.
Some of the major temples in India are:

• Modhera Sun Temple, Gujarat. It was built in the 11th century.
• Konark Sun temple, Odisha. Narasimhadeva made it I, the Eastern Ganga king in the 13th century. It is in the shape of “Rath”(Chariot) with a mandala on a raised platform.
• Brahmanya Dev Temple, Unao (Madhya Pradesh).
• Suryanar Kovil, Kumbakonam (Tamil Nadu) was built in 11th century in Dravidian style. It also has shrines of eight celestial bodies, together called ‘Navagraha’. It has a beautiful five-layered Gopuram.
• Suryanarayana Swamy temple, Arasavalli (Andhra Pradesh). It is said to be made by a Kalinga king in the 7th century. The idol is made of granite and holds a lotus.
• Dakshinaarka Temple, Gaya (Bihar) is said to be built by King Prataparudra of Warangal in the 13th century AD. The deity is made in granite and the idol wears Persian attire like waist girdle, boots and a jacket. It has a Surya Kund (water reservoir) nearby.
• Navalakha Temple, Ghumli (Gujarat) was made in the 11th century. It is built in Solanki and Maru-Gurjara style. It faces east and is built on a large platform.
• Surya Pahar Temple, Goalpara (Assam).
• Martand Sun temple, Kashmir.

MODERN INDIA

Colonial Architecture
European colonists brought India concepts of their “world view” and whole baggage of the history of European architecture: Neo-Classical, Romanesque, Gothic and Renaissance. The initial structures were utilitarian warehouses and walled trading posts, giving way to fortified towns along the coastline.

➢ Portuguese

• The Portuguese adapted to India the climatically appropriate Iberian galleried patio house and the Baroque churches of Goa.
• Cathedral and Arch of Conception of Goa were built in the typical Portuguese-Gothic style.
• The St. Francis Church at Cochin, built by the Portuguese in 1510, is believed to be the first church built by the Europeans in India.
• The Portuguese also built the fort of Castella de Aguada near Mumbai and added fortifications to the Bassein fort.

➢ Dutch

• The Danish influence is evident in Nagapattinam, which was laid out in squares and canals and in Tranquebar and Serampore.

➢ French

• The French gave a distinct urban design to its settlement in Pondicherry by applying the Cartesian grid plans and classical architectural patterns.
• The Church of Sacred Heart of Jesus (Eglise De Sacre Coeur De Jesus), the Eglise de Notre Dame de Anges and the Eglise de Notre Dame de Lourdes at Pondicherry have a distinct French influence.

➢ British

• It was the British who left a lasting impact on India architecture. They saw themselves as the successors to the Mughals and used architecture as a symbol of power. British started a new hybrid style of architecture called Indo – Saracenic style or Indo – Gothic style. It was a combination of Indian, Islamic and European architectures.
• The first buildings were factories but later courts, schools, municipal halls and dak bungalows came up, which were ordinary structures, built by garrison engineers.
• A deeper concern with architecture was exhibited in churches and other public buildings. The Church of St. John at Calcutta built in 1787, St. Mary’s Church in Fort St. George in Chennai are some of the examples.
• Most of the buildings were adaptations of the buildings designed by leading British architects in London and other places. The Indo-Gothic architecture flourished in different parts of India under the British.
• Some of the important architecture are:

  Gateway of India – Mumbai, Chepak palace – Chennai, Lakshmi vilas palace – Baroda, Victoria memorial – Kolkata.

Gateway of India, Mumbai

The British built New Delhi as a systematically planned city after it was made the capital in 1911. Sir Edward Lutyens was made responsible for the overall plan of Delhi. He was specifically directed to “harmonise externally with the traditions of Indian art”.

• The Western architecture with Oriental motif was released with chajjas, jalis and chhatris, as stylistic devices in the Viceroy’s House (Rashtrapati Bhawan).
• Herbert Baker added the South Block’s imposing buildings and the North Block, which flank the Rashtrapati Bhawan.
• Another Englishman called Robert Tor Russell built the Connaught Place and the Eastern and Western Courts.
• St Martin’s Garrison Church marks the culmination of the British architectural ventures in India. The Church is a huge monolith with a high square tower and deeply sunken window ledges reminiscent of Dutch and German architecture.