India and United States of America

• In the post-Cold War international scenario, with the United States as the sole surviving Super Power, it is crucial to analyze the evolving Indo-US relations.

• Indo-US relations did not see significant developments immediately after India’s independence and until the end of the Cold War due to Cold War dynamics.

• India’s non-alignment stance was initially rejected by the US, with John Foster Dulles condemning it as “immoral”.

• Kashmir issue was a significant hurdle, with the US supporting a plebiscite as per the UN resolution of 1948-49, making India cautious.

• India’s recognition of Communist China in 1949 and the US’s military alliances with Pakistan (e.g., Baghdad Pact, SEATO, CENTO) created tension.

• Korean crisis and India’s refusal to endorse the US-sponsored “Uniting for Peace Resolution” also distanced the two countries.

• The 1971 Indo-Russian Treaty of Friendship and support to Pakistan during the Bangladesh liberation war worsened ties. The US moved its 7th Fleet to the Bay of Bengal, while the Soviet Union supported India.

• The 1974 Pokhran Nuclear explosion by India further distanced relations, although cooperation continued in areas like economic, cultural, and education sectors.

• US provided technical assistance and food aid (PL-480) to India during food shortages, and a Joint Commission was established to foster cooperation in various sectors.

• 1979 Soviet invasion of Afghanistan created tensions, with India’s refusal to support the US and criticism over US arms supplies to Pakistan.

• During Ronald Reagan’s tenure, bitterness increased due to differences over Diego Garcia, US refusal to dismantle its base, and India’s demand to establish the Indian Ocean as a ‘Zone of Peace’.

• India’s refusal to sign NPT and US enforcement of Super 301 and Missile Technology Regime against India further soured relations.

• The Rajiv Gandhi era saw a slight improvement in relations with his 1985 visit to the US, where he highlighted the nuclear threat posed by Pakistan.

• National Front Government saw further improvement, with financial assistance from World Bank and IMF helping India’s economic crisis. The US dropped insistence on a plebiscite in Kashmir and supported the Simla Accord.

• 1990-1991: Collapse of the Soviet Union, the end of Cold War, and India’s economic liberalization led to a new phase in bilateral relations, with Joint Naval exercises held in 1992 and Narasimha Rao’s visit to the US in 1994.

• In 1995, several agreements were signed, but issues like Super 301 and nuclear fuel supply to Tarapur reactor created tensions.

• 1998 Pokhran II nuclear tests and India’s refusal to sign CTBT reversed relations, though the US stance softened post 9/11 attacks and the 13 December 2001 attack on Indian Parliament.