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SUB-TOPIC INFO – History (UNIT 1)
CONTENT TYPE – Short Notes
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1. Origin and Extent of Harappan Civilisation
1.1. Name
1.2. Distribution
1.3. Origin
1.4. Morphology of Some Major Sites
1.4.1. Mohenjodaro
1.4.2. Chanhudaro
1.4.3. Harappa
1.4.4. Kalibangan
1.4.5. Banawali
1.4.6. Lothal
1.4.7. Surkotada
1.4.8. Dholavira
1.4.9. Kuntasi
1.4.10. General Features of Harappan Settlements
2. Salient Features of Harappan Civilisation
2.1. Origin and Evolution
2.2. Date of Indus Valley Civilisation
2.3. Town Planning
2.4. Economic Life
2.5. Agriculture in Indus Valley Civilisation
2.6. Social Life
2.7. Social Institutions
2.8. Art and Crafts
2.9. Religion
2.10. Script in Indus Valley Civilisation
2.11. Burial Methods
3. Decline of Harappan Civilisation
3.1. Causes
3.2. Theories of Decline
3.2.1. Aryan Invasion
3.2.2. Natural Disasters
3.2.3. Ecological Imbalance
3.2.4. Shifting away of Indus
3.2.5. Climatic Change
3.2.6. Decline of Trade
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Indus/Harappa Civilisation
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Table of Contents
Origin and Extent of Harappan Civilisation
Name
- The inscribed seals of the Indus civilization were known before their discovery, but their significance was not understood until excavations at Harappa began in 1920–21, led by Pandit Daya Ram Sahni.
- In the following year, Mohenjodaro in Larkana district of Sindh was excavated by Rakhal Das Banerji.
- The discovery of these sites revealed a new civilization comparable in antiquity to the civilizations of Egypt, Mesopotamia, and south-west Iran or Elam, as announced in the Illustrated London News in 1924.
- Harappa is located in the upper Indus valley, and Mohenjodaro in the lower Indus valley, leading to the civilization being called the ‘Indus civilization’.
- The term ‘Indus civilization’ was used in the first definitive volume on the results of the excavations at Mohenjodaro.
- The current extent of the civilization includes areas far beyond the Indus river valley, with the most significant cluster of sites in the Cholistan section of the Hakra plain in Pakistan.
- Since the Hakra is identified with the Sarasvati river mentioned in early Indian literature, some scholars now call it the ‘Indus-Sarasvati civilization’.
- The term ‘Sarasvati’ does not combine well with the originally Greek term ‘Indus’, and therefore it is suggested to use ‘Indus-Hakra’ or ‘Sindhu-Sarasvati’ (with Sindhu being the Sanskrit name for the Indus).
- The term ‘Indus-Hakra’ or ‘Sindhu-Sarasvati’ reflects the core area of the civilization in the Hakra plain, but this does not reflect its vast extent, which covered regions like Baluchistan, Gujarat, and parts of the Ganga-Yamuna Doab.
- The most logical term for this civilization is ‘the Harappan civilization’, following the model of naming archaeological cultures after the sites where they are first identified.
- Both ‘Indus civilization’ and ‘Harappan civilization’ are used in the text.
Some Major Sites of the Indus Civilization 1. Shortughai, 2. Manda, 3. Gumla, 4. Harappa, 5. Cholistan sites, 6. Kalibangan, 7. Mitathal, 8. Banawali, 9. Hulas, 10. Rakhigarhi, 11. Mohenjodaro, 12. Balakol, 13. Chanhudaro, 14. Dholavira, 15. Surkotada, 16. Nagwada, 17. Lothal, 18. Nageswar, 19. Kuntasi, 20. Rojdi, 21. Rangpur, 22. Padri
Distribution
- The outermost site of this civilization is Shortughai in north-eastern Afghanistan, 25 km from the Kokcha, a tributary of the Oxus.
- Excavations at Shortughai confirm its Indus civilization identity, showing that it was the first occupation of the area.
- The settlement adapted to the landscape, utilizing a canal system for irrigation from the Kokcha and evidence of dry-farming with flax seeds found outside the irrigated areas.
- Shortughai had significant Harappan contact with the Bactrian area of north Afghanistan, though no clear contact has been found in this section of Afghanistan.
- The location of Shortughai is likely due to its access to lapis lazuli from Badakhshan and possibly tin and other resources from Central Asia.
- Harappan sites in Baluchistan are located in areas with considerable village growth in earlier periods, reflecting a pattern of settlement and resource use.
- Key sites in Makran coast: Sutkagendor and Sotka-koh, possibly ports with maritime links to the Gulf region and Mesopotamia.
- The Turbat oasis sites like Miri Qalat and possibly Panjgur served as foci of settlements due to agricultural fertility and location on key routes.
- Sites like Balakot in the Khurkera alluvial plain benefited from agriculture and marine resources, while areas in the south Baluchistan hills show evidence of Harappan contact rather than settlements.
- The Bolan route to Afghanistan was crucial, with the major site Nausharo located at the entrance to the pass, linked to the agricultural significance of the Mehrgarh area.
- Pathani Damb was important for its location at the Mula pass across the Kirthar range, linking Baluchistan with the rest of the region.
- Harappan sites continued to follow the earlier pattern of settling in agriculturally viable areas and along important internal and external routes.
- Gumal valley saw Harappan occupation at Gumla, reflecting its agricultural potential and proximity to the Gomal route to Afghanistan.
- The Indus-Hakra plain configuration by Louis Flam reveals the landscape of Sind, with Shikarpur and Meharlocated on the left bank of the Indus, with Mohenjodaro between them.
- Mohenjodaro is in the agriculturally rich Larkana region, linked to the Bolan trade via Shikarpur, with access through the Mula pass.
- The Kirthar foothill zone in Larkana is agricultural but dependent on irrigation from torrent-beds, with spring-fed water sources for irrigation.
- Manchhar Lake and Majumdar’s exploration show clusters of Harappan sites, especially in Kohistan.
- Sites near Karachi include Amilano, Orangi, and Ahladino, with Chanhudaro significant due to its proximity to Amri and a ferry crossing across the Indus.
- New data from upper Sind highlight Harappan workmen’s huts at sites like Lakhianjodaro, with the Nara canalbeing linked to the Hakra.
- A major site cluster of 174 sites is near Derawar fort on the Hakra, with many industrial sites and kilns indicating specialized craft production.
- The largest site in this cluster, Ganweriwala Ther, spans over 81.5 ha, with two mounds and significant height.
- Pakistani Punjab has Harappa on an old bed of the Ravi, with scattered sites beyond the Ravi, around Sheikhpura, but none found in the Jecha Doab.
- The Indo-Gangetic divide covers areas between the Sutlej, Yamuna, and Ghaggar-Hakra, which was once an important river system in the Indus civilization.
- The Sarasvati river of ancient tradition corresponds to the dried-up Ghaggar-Hakra, with palaeo-channels tracing its path.
- The climate of the Indus region is mostly arid/semi-arid, with annual rainfall ranging from 80-160 cm in many regions, but increasing in parts of Punjab, Haryana, and Rajasthan.
- Evidence suggests a dry climate during the Harappan period, with calcium carbonate nodules showing low soil respiration and arid conditions.
- Harappa’s soil carbon isotope analysis supports the arid climate theory.
- The Ghaggar-Hakra system was a dying river from the early stages of human occupation, with the Sutlej and Yamuna rerouted, leaving the system mostly dry.
- A 1984 site count shows 138 Indus sites in Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, Punjab, and Rajasthan, with Rakhigarhi being one of the largest sites.
- The Mansa area in Bhatinda district has unexcavated large sites, possibly indicating a different scale of urbanization.
- The Gujarat region had 101 Indus sites in 1984, with Dholavira being the largest site in Kutch at over 100 ha, and others like Lothal, Surkotada, and Padri showing significant archaeological findings.
- The Harappan distribution across Sind, Baluchistan, and Punjab reveals a pattern of adaptation to diverse geographies and resource availabilities, with regional adaptations seen in earlier Harappan periods.
- The classic Indus civilization likely expanded from the core region in the Hakra plain, moving outwards to Kutch, Saurashtra, and the Indus-Hakra Doab, indicating a continuous and gradual geographical dissemination over time.
- The spread of the Indus civilization was linked to its agricultural base and efficient use of alluvial systems, with settlements forming discrete and dispersed units.