PREVIEW

• Traditional international paradigm: Views world affairs as primarily based on relations between states, considering states as essential building blocks of global politics.
• Globalization paradigm: Emphasizes the impact of global interconnectedness and interdependence on world affairs, portraying the world as an integrated whole.
• Global politics straddles these paradigms, acknowledging the relevance of both states and global interdependence.
• Global politics must consider different theoretical perspectives, such as mainstream and critical viewpoints, to understand the world.
• Global politics is marked by ongoing and accelerating change, but some aspects exhibit enduring characteristics.
• Balancing continuity and change is a key challenge in the study of global politics.

• Transformation from ‘international’ politics to ‘global’ politics has been marked by significant changes:

  • New actors on the world stage, including transnational corporations (TNCs), non-governmental organizations (NGOs), and various non-state bodies, alongside traditional nation-states.
  • Increased interdependence and interconnectedness due to the growth of cross-border flows and transactions, challenging the conventional distinctions between domestic and international spheres.
  • The trend towards global governance, exemplified by the rise of international organizations like the United Nations, IMF, WTO, and regional entities.
• In the past, ‘international relations’ emerged as territorially-based political units began to have a more national character, leading to relations that appeared genuinely ‘inter-national.’
• The state-centric approach to world politics was based on the concept of state sovereignty as the primary organizing principle of international politics, rooted in the Peace of Westphalia (1648).
• The state-centric approach has become increasingly difficult to maintain due to the influence of non-state actors like TNCs, NGOs, and others.
• The ‘billiard ball model’ of international politics, associated with realist theory, portrayed states as impermeable and self-contained units, influencing each other primarily through military and security matters.
• Growing interdependence and interconnectedness among states have led to the emergence of a ‘complex interdependence’ model, where states are forced to cooperate and integrate in various areas.
• The ‘cobweb model’ of world politics illustrates this web of relationships among states and the need for collective efforts in addressing global challenges.
• The notion of international anarchy, where states rely on self-help and conflict is seen as inevitable, has been challenged by the rise of global governance structures, such as international organizations.
• Organizations like the United Nations, IMF, WTO, and regional entities have gained importance due to the collective dilemmas faced by states in addressing complex global issues.
• While international organizations are significant actors, their influence remains subject to the willingness of member states, especially powerful ones.

• Globalization challenges the traditional state-centric view of world politics.
• It is a multifaceted and controversial concept, encompassing economic, cultural, and political dimensions.
• Some distinguish between globalization as a process and globality as a resulting condition.
• Globalization can be viewed as a set of processes that lead to interconnectedness, affecting various aspects of societies.
• Economic globalization involves the integration of national economies into a global economy.
• Cultural globalization results in the global flow of information, commodities, and culture, which tends to homogenize differences.
• Political globalization involves the transfer of policymaking responsibilities from national governments to international organizations.
• The debate over whether globalization is happening includes hyperglobalists who see it as a revolutionary shift, skeptics who view it as a fantasy, and transformationalists who acknowledge significant changes but not a complete overhaul.
• Hyperglobalists emphasize a borderless world and market triumph over the state.
• Sceptics argue that most economic activity remains within national boundaries, and globalization is used to advance a market-oriented agenda.
• Transformationalists see globalization as leading to profound changes without erasing traditional features of world politics.
• Major transformations brought by globalization include increased breadth, intensity, and speed of interconnectedness.

LENSES ON GLOBAL POLITICS

• Understanding global politics involves examining various theories, values, and assumptions used to interpret world affairs.
• Theoretical perspectives on global politics have grown diverse and rich over recent decades.
• Mainstream and critical perspectives are two broad categories within the study of global politics.
• Mainstream perspectives often align with established ideas and conventional views of international relations.
• Critical perspectives challenge established norms and question the status quo in global politics.

Mainstream perspectives

Realism:

• Pessimistic view of global politics, emphasizing power struggles and conflict.
• Derives from thinkers like Thucydides, Machiavelli, and Hobbes.
• Key assumptions include selfish human nature, politics as power and coercion, states as central actors prioritizing self-interest and security.
• States operate in an anarchic context, relying on self-help.
• Global order is structured by the distribution of power among states.
• The balance of power is crucial for stability and avoiding war.
• Ethical considerations are seen as irrelevant in foreign policy.

Liberalism:

• Optimistic view of global politics, grounded in human rationality and moral goodness.
• Belief in the principle of balance or harmony in social interactions.
• Supports internationalism and the possibility of “universal and perpetual peace.”
• Assumptions include rational and moral human beings, progressive history toward international cooperation and peace.
• Emphasizes mixed-actor models of global politics over state-centric ones.
• Believes trade and economic interdependence reduce the likelihood of war.
• International law promotes order and rule-governed behavior among states.
• Democracy, particularly among democratic states, is seen as inherently peaceful.

Commonalities of New Critical Voices:

• Expanded since the late 1980s, influenced by the end of the Cold War.
• Differ from mainstream realism and liberalism.
• Emphasize consciousness in shaping social conduct and world affairs.
• Post-positivist theories, subjecting mainstream theories to critical scrutiny.
• Oppose dominant forces and interests in global politics.
• Align with marginalized or oppressed groups.
• Uncover inequalities and asymmetries often ignored by mainstream theories.

Key Characteristics of Different Critical Theories:

• Neo-Marxism:

  • Focus on inequalities in the global capitalist system.
  • Developed countries or areas dominate and exploit developing countries.

• Social Constructivism:

  • Argue that people construct the world they live in.
  • Emphasize “inter-subjective” awareness.
  • Question mainstream theory’s claim to objectivity.

• Poststructuralism:

  • Emphasize the role of language and power.
  • Discuss power in relation to systems of thought, using the concept of “discourse of power.”

• Feminism:

  • Highlight gender inequality in global and all forms of politics.
  • Critique mainstream theories for their “masculinist” assumptions about rivalry and conflict.

• Postcolonialism:

  • Focus on the cultural dimension of colonial rule.
  • Expose how western cultural and political hegemony persisted despite formal political independence in the developing world.

• Green Politics (Ecologism):

  • Center on concerns about environmental degradation.
  • Attribute it to industrialization, economic growth obsession, and human portrayal as “masters over nature.”

• Global politics is characterized by constant change, with an accelerating pace of transformation over time.
• Significant events in recent decades include the end of the Cold War, the collapse of the Soviet Union, 9/11 terrorist attacks, and the global financial crisis of 2007-09, all reshaping world politics.
• Three key aspects of global politics: Power, Security, Justice.
• Despite dramatic shifts, some features of world affairs remain enduringly significant.
• The balance between continuity and change is a key theme in global politics.

Power

• Politics revolves around the concept of power, and it is often defined by the question: “Who gets what, when, how?”
• During the Cold War, the world was dominated by two superpowers, the USA and the Soviet Union, leading to a bipolar world order.
• The end of the Cold War sparked a debate on the shifting location of global power.
• One view suggests that the USA became the world’s sole superpower and a global hegemon, shaping globalization and holding significant structural power.
• Alternative views argue that power has become more fragmented and pluralized, with growing importance of non-state actors, international organizations, and economic interdependence.
• Emerging states like China, India, Brazil, and a resurgent Russia are contributing to a multipolar world order.
• Technology has also altered power dynamics, allowing loosely organized groups, like terrorist and protest organizations, to have a global reach.
• The changing nature of power includes the rise of “soft” power, emphasizing influence through attraction and persuasion over coercion.
• The spread of television and satellite technology has made global events and suffering widely visible, influencing governments and international organizations through global public opinion.

Security

• Security is a fundamental concern in politics, involving the quest for a decent and peaceful life, free from threats and violence.
• International politics is often seen as more security-sensitive due to the anarchical nature of the international system.
• Realists emphasize “national security” and military power as key to a state’s security.
• The security dilemma, where defensive actions can be perceived as aggressive, contributes to perpetual insecurity among states.
• Alternatives to national security concepts include “collective security,” emphasizing united action by multiple states, and “international security.”
• Security regimes and communities help manage conflicts and promote peace, often tied to economic interdependence and democratization.
• Terrorism and non-state actors have introduced new security challenges in the era of global interconnectedness.
• “Human security” focuses on threats beyond traditional military concerns, such as environmental destruction, disease, refugees, and resource scarcity.
• In the post-Cold War world, internal conflicts within states have become more significant security challenges.

Justice

• Realist theorists prioritize national interest over ethical considerations, viewing justice as irrelevant in international politics.
• Liberals advocate the integration of morality and international politics, emphasizing “international” justice and principles governing state behavior.
• Concepts like state sovereignty and non-interference in the affairs of other states reflect liberal ideas of international justice.
• “Just war” theory asserts that war must be justified by both the reasons for war and the conduct of war conforming to principles of justice.
• The growth of interconnectedness has led to a focus on “global” or “cosmopolitan” justice based on universal moral values, particularly in the context of international human rights.
• Global distributive justice promotes wealth redistribution between rich and poor countries, influenced by utilitarian and philosophical arguments.
• Rich countries are seen as having an obligation to help the poor due to the causal relationship between wealth and poverty in the international order.
• Ideas of global environmental justice center on protecting the environment for future generations, addressing climate change, and structuring emissions targets on a per capita basis.