• Until nearly the beginning of the 21st century, most researchers believed the brain was incapable of change in adulthood.
• Several pioneering neuroscientists proposed that the adult brain is flexible, or plastic, and tried to change longstanding beliefs.
• Despite their revolutionary data, these researchers were criticized, and their data and methods were questioned for years.
• Over time, accumulated data convinced even the strongest critics to accept the presence of neural changes in the adult brain, including the formation of new cells in some regions.
• Today, we understand that the adult brain forms new connections between neurons throughout a lifetime.
• This change in understanding has brought optimism and excitement, leading to new therapies for brain injury and mental illness.
• Numerous researchers continue to make discoveries about neurogenesis, the generation of new neurons, each year.
• This shift in how we understand the brain illustrates key principles of behavioral neuroscience as a dynamic and ever-evolving field.
• The process of obtaining facts, the dedication of numerous scientists, and the potential for new discoveries are crucial aspects of this field.
• The human nervous system, the last frontier within us, enables everything we do, know, and experience.
• The complexity of the nervous system makes studying and understanding it one of the greatest challenges humanity has ever faced.

Foundations of Behavioral Neuroscience

• Behavioral neuroscience was formerly known as physiological psychology and is still sometimes referred to by that name.
• Wilhelm Wundt’s Principles of Physiological Psychology was the first psychology textbook, written in the late nineteenth century.
• The field of behavioral neuroscience has become interdisciplinary due to contributions from experimental biology, chemistry, animal behavior, psychology, computer science, and other fields.
• This interdisciplinary effort stems from the realization that the ultimate function of the nervous system is behavior.
• Students often associate the brain with functions like thinking, logical reasoning, perceiving, and remembering.
• While the nervous system performs these functions, they support the primary function of controlling movement.
• Movement includes speech and other forms of communication, which are key aspects of human behavior.
• The purpose of perception is to help us understand our environment so we can adapt our behavior accordingly.
• Perception without action would be useless, although perception can also serve non-behavioral functions like enjoying a sunset or art.
• Thinking can occur without resulting in overt behavior but evolved to support complex behaviors that fulfill useful, self-preserving goals.
• Learning and memory evolved to allow our ancestors to gain from experience and perform behaviors beneficial for survival.
• Behavioral neuroscience merges experimental methods from psychology and physiology to address questions relevant to many fields.
• Research in neuroscience covers topics like perceptual processes, control of movement, sleep and waking, reproductive behaviors, ingestive behaviors, emotional behaviors, learning, and language.
• Recent research also focuses on the neuroscience of human pathological conditions such as substance abuse, neurological disorders, and mental disorders.
• These topics are explored further in subsequent chapters of the book.

The Goals of Research

• The goal of all scientists is to explain the phenomena they study.
• Scientific explanations take two forms: generalization and reduction.
• Generalization refers to explaining phenomena by identifying general laws, usually through experiments.
• Reduction refers to explaining complex phenomena in terms of simpler ones.
• Behavioral neuroscientists aim to explain behavior by studying the physiological processes that control it.
• Behavioral neuroscientists cannot rely solely on reductionism; understanding the function of behavior is also important.
• Observing behaviors and correlating them with physiological events is insufficient without understanding their purpose.
• For example, mice build nests either when the air temperature is low or when they are pregnant.
• Nonpregnant mice build nests in cool temperatures, while pregnant mice build nests regardless of temperature.
• The same behavior (nest building) occurs for different reasons, controlled by different physiological mechanisms.
• Nest-building behavior can be studied in the context of temperature regulation or parental behavior.
• While the same brain mechanisms control nest-building movements, different brain regions activate these mechanisms.
• One brain region responds to temperature detectors, and another is influenced by pregnancy hormones.
• Physiological mechanisms can sometimes inform our understanding of psychological processes such as language, memory, or mood.
• For instance, damage to certain brain areas can cause specific language impairments, revealing how language abilities are organized.
• Damage to a brain region responsible for speech sound analysis also impairs spelling, suggesting a link between recognizing spoken words and spelling.
• Damage to another brain region can impair the ability to read unfamiliar words but not familiar ones, indicating two routes for reading comprehension: one related to speech sounds and one based on visual recognition of whole words.
• Behavioral neuroscience research involves both generalization and reduction as explanatory methods.
• Experiments are often inspired by knowledge of both psychological generalizations about behavior and physiological mechanisms.
• A good behavioral neuroscientist must be knowledgeable in both behavior and physiology.

Biological Roots of Behavioral Neuroscience

• Since earliest historical times, humans have believed they possess something intangible that animates them, often referred to as the mind, soul, or spirit.
• Humans also have physical bodies with muscles for movement and sensory organs, such as eyes and ears, that perceive the world around them.
• The nervous system plays a central role in receiving sensory information and controlling muscle movements.
• The relationship between the mind and the nervous system is a key question: Does the mind control the nervous system? Is the mind part of the nervous system? Is the mind physical, or is it something intangible, like a spirit?
• This puzzle is known as the mind–body question.
• Philosophers have debated the mind–body question for centuries, and scientists have more recently taken up the challenge.
• Two main approaches to the mind–body question exist: dualism and monism.
• Dualism holds that reality consists of two distinct entities: the mind and the body, with the mind being non-physical and separate from the body.
• Monism is the belief that everything in the universe is made of matter and energy, and the mind is a phenomenon produced by the workings of the nervous system.
• Speculation alone cannot fully answer the mind–body question, as philosophical debate has shown.
• Behavioral neuroscientists adopt an empirical, monistic approach to studying human nature.
• Most neuroscientists believe that understanding the workings of the human body, particularly the nervous system, will resolve the mind–body question.
• Through this understanding, we will be able to explain perception, thought, memory, behavior, and even self-awareness.
• The field of behavioral neuroscience has developed through important past discoveries that contributed to our current understanding.

Ancient World

• The study of the physiology of behavior has ancient roots.
• A papyrus scroll from approximately 1700 B.C.E. contains surgical records of head injuries and includes the earliest descriptions of the brain, cerebrospinal fluid, meninges, and skull (Feldman and Goodrich, 1999).
• In ancient Egyptian, Indian, and Chinese cultures, the heart was believed to be the seat of thought and emotions, as its movement was necessary for life and emotions made it beat more strongly.
• The ancient Greeks also shared this belief, though Hippocrates (460–370 B.C.E.) argued that the brain, not the heart, was responsible for thought and emotions.
• Not all ancient Greek scholars agreed with Hippocrates—Aristotle believed the brain’s function was to cool the passions of the heart.
• Galen (130–200 C.E.), despite respecting Aristotle, disagreed with his view on the brain’s role and conducted dissections of various animals, including cattle, sheep, pigs, cats, dogs, weasels, monkeys, and apes (Finger, 1994).
• Galen dismissed Aristotle’s theory as “utterly absurd,” reasoning that if the brain’s only function was to cool the heart, nature would not have placed it so far from the heart or attached all the sensory nerves to it.

Seventeenth Century

• Philosophers and physiologists in the 1600s made significant contributions to the foundations of modern behavioral neuroscience.
• René Descartes, a French philosopher, speculated on the roles of the mind and brain in controlling behavior, which serves as a key point in the modern history of behavioral neuroscience.
• Descartes viewed animals as mechanical devices whose behavior was controlled by environmental stimuli.
• He believed that the human body was also a machine and that some movements were automatic and involuntary, such as withdrawing the hand when touching something hot.
• Descartes called these automatic actions “reflexes.”
• Like most philosophers of his time, Descartes was a dualist, believing that humans possess a mind that is not bound by the physical laws of the universe.
• However, Descartes differed from his predecessors by suggesting that the mind and brain were linked.
• Descartes believed the mind controlled the body’s movements, while the body provided the mind with information about the environment through sense organs.
• He hypothesized that this interaction occurred in the pineal body, a small organ located on top of the brain stem, beneath the cerebral hemispheres.
• Descartes noted that the brain contained hollow chambers (ventricles) filled with fluid, which he believed was under pressure.
• He theorized that the mind would tilt the pineal body like a joystick to direct fluid flow into nerves, inflating and moving muscles.
• Descartes’ idea about pressurized fluid controlling behavior was later disproven by Luigi Galvani, a seventeenth-century Italian physiologist.
• Galvani discovered that electrical stimulation of a frog’s nerve caused muscle contraction, even when the nerve and muscle were detached from the body.
• This finding demonstrated that muscle contraction and nerve transmission were properties of the tissues themselves, not the result of fluid pressure from the brain.
• Galvani’s experiment inspired further research into the nature of nerve messages and muscle contractions, leading to a growing body of knowledge about the physiology of behavior.

Nineteenth Century

• Johannes Müller was a key figure in experimental physiology and emphasized experimentation over mere observation.
• Müller introduced the doctrine of specific nerve energies, stating that different nerves carry the same basic electrical message but result in different perceptions based on their destination in the brain.
• The brain is functionally divided, with different parts interpreting messages from specific nerves.
• Pierre Flourens, a French physiologist, used experimental ablation by removing brain parts from animals and observing behavioral changes to infer brain functions.
• Flourens identified brain regions controlling heart rate, breathing, movements, and reflexes.
• Paul Broca, a French surgeon, applied experimental ablation principles to humans, studying brain damage in stroke patients.
• In 1861, Broca discovered Broca’s area, a region of the cerebral cortex necessary for speech production.
• Luigi Galvani demonstrated that muscles generate their own energy for contraction using electrical stimulation.
• Gustav Fritsch and Eduard Hitzig applied electrical stimulation to the dog brain and discovered the primary motor cortex, which controls muscle contractions on the opposite side of the body.
• The primary motor cortex communicates with other brain regions, such as Broca’s area, which controls speech muscles.
• Hermann von Helmholtz contributed to many fields, including the law of conservation of energy, the invention of the ophthalmoscope, color vision theory, and measuring the speed of neural conduction, which was slower than previously thought.
• Jan Purkinje, a Czech physiologist, discovered Purkinje fibers responsible for heart contractions and described Purkinje cells in the cerebellum.
• Purkinje was also the first to describe the individuality of fingerprints.
• Santiago Ramón y Cajal used the Golgi staining technique to examine neurons and depicted their structures for the first time.
• Cajal proposed that the nervous system consists of billions of discrete neurons rather than a continuous network, earning him the Nobel Prize in 1906 for his work on nervous system structure.

Contemporary Research

• Twentieth-century advancements in experimental physiology led to the development of sensitive amplifiers, neurochemical techniques, and histological techniques, enhancing the study of electrical signals, chemical changes, and cellular visualization.
• Neuroscientific discoveries during the twentieth century included the identification of electrical and chemical messaging systems in neurons and the circuits involved in various behaviors.
• One notable discovery was the mirror neuron system, which is important for coordinating social behavior.
• New brain-based treatments for mental disorders like depression and schizophrenia were developed as neuroscience progressed.
• The twenty-first century has brought significant advancements in neuroscience, such as:
  • John O’Keefe, May-Britt Moser, and Edvard Moser winning the 2014 Nobel Prize for discovering spatial positioning systems in the brain, known as the brain’s “GPS.”
  • Deep brain stimulation techniques were developed to treat severe depression and Parkinson’s disease.
  • Optogenetics, a technology that uses light to selectively activate single neurons, provided researchers with new methods for studying behavior.
• Behavioral neuroscience is progressing as an interdisciplinary field, combining research from biology, chemistry, engineering, psychology, physiology, and other disciplines.
• Large-scale research initiatives such as the European Human Brain Project and the U.S.-based BRAIN Initiative are advancing the understanding of brain structures and functions through collaboration across various fields.

Diversity in Neuroscience

• Neuroscience is a diverse, interdisciplinary field with researchers working globally.
• The Society for Neuroscience was founded in 1969 with 500 members, aimed at building a professional community for scientists and physicians focused on the brain and nervous system.
• Today, the Society for Neuroscience has approximately 40,000 members from over 90 countries.
• Nobel Prizes related to neuroscience have been awarded to men and women from various countries, reflecting the international nature of the field.
• Efforts are ongoing to increase diversity within neuroscience by promoting inclusivity of women and underrepresented groups in the sciences.

Natural Selection and Evolution

Functionalism and the Inheritance of Traits

• Darwin’s theory emphasized that all of an organism’s characteristics (structure, coloration, behavior) have functional significance.
• Example: Eagles’ strong talons and sharp beaks help them catch and eat prey.
• Example: Green caterpillars blend with their environment, making it difficult for birds to see them.
• Mother mice build nests to keep their offspring warm and safe.
• Behavior is not inherited, but the brain structure that causes the behavior is inherited.
• Darwin’s theory gave rise to functionalism, the belief that characteristics of living organisms perform useful functions.
• To understand the physiological basis of behavior, one must understand the behavior’s function and the natural history of the species.
• The nervous system’s functions are the result of genetic variability over time.
• Physiological mechanisms do not have a purpose, but they have functions that can be determined.
• Example: The forelimbs of different mammal species are adapted for different functions.
• Example: Male songbirds have specialized brain structures that allow them to learn and produce songs.
• The function of male song behavior is to attract mates and deter rivals.
• Darwin’s theory of evolution explains how species acquire adaptive characteristics through natural selection.
• Natural selection occurs when favorable characteristics that improve reproductive success are inherited by offspring.
• Darwin noted that animal breeders could develop strains with specific traits through artificial selection.
• In natural selection, the environment, not breeders, shapes the process of evolution.
• Darwin did not know the mechanism of natural selection, which was explained later through the discovery of molecular genetics.
• Chromosomes contain the genetic blueprints for the construction and development of organisms.
• Altered genetic blueprints produce different organisms.
• Mutations are accidental changes in chromosomes of sperm or eggs that develop into new organisms.
• Example: A random mutation in an animal’s testis or ovary can affect its offspring.
• Most mutations are deleterious, leading to offspring that fail to survive or have defects.
• A small percentage of mutations are beneficial and confer a selective advantage, making the organism more likely to reproduce and pass on its chromosomes.
• Traits conferring selective advantages include disease resistance, new food digestion abilities, effective defense or prey procurement weapons, and attractive appearance to potential mates.
• Mutations alter physical traits through changes in chromosomes, which affect cell structure and chemistry, indirectly influencing behavior.
• Example: A mutation causing a change in brain function leading to freezing behavior in response to novel stimuli can enhance survival by avoiding predators.
• Some mutations are not immediately favorable but do not disadvantage their possessors, allowing them to be inherited.
• Over time, such mutations contribute to genetic variety within a species, which is advantageous for adaptation to changing environments.
• A species with varied genes can better adapt to new environments and avoid extinction.
• Understanding natural selection influences behavioral neuroscience research.
• Researchers may focus on genetic mechanisms of behavior, physiological processes underlying behavior, and comparative studies of nervous systems across species.
• Natural selection guides researchers in considering the selective advantages of traits, how existing physiological mechanisms might evolve, and evaluating hypotheses from an evolutionary perspective

Evolution of Large Brains

• Evolution is a gradual development of species’ structure and physiology due to natural selection.
• New species evolve when organisms develop traits to exploit unoccupied environmental opportunities.
• Early humans trace back to the Cenozoic period when tropical forests covered much of the land.
• Early primates were small, insectivorous, and had grasping hands for climbing trees.
• Over time, primates evolved larger bodies and forward-facing eyes, improving their ability to navigate trees and capture prey.
• The evolution of fruit-bearing trees provided an opportunity for fruit-eating primates, enhancing their color vision to distinguish ripe fruit from leaves.
• Fruit’s nutritional value allowed larger primates to travel farther for food.
• Early hominids appeared in Africa’s drier woodlands and savannas, not dense forests.
• These hominids adapted to gather roots and tubers, hunt, defend against predators, make tools, use fire, domesticate dogs, and develop symbolic communication.
• Primate family tree shows that humans’ closest living relatives are chimpanzees, gorillas, and orangutans, sharing about 99% of their DNA with chimpanzees.
• The first hominid, Homo erectus, left Africa around 1.7 million years ago, spreading across Europe and Asia.
• Homo erectus led to Homo neanderthalis (Neanderthals) in Western Europe (120,000–30,000 years ago) who resembled modern humans and used tools and fire.
• Homo sapiens evolved in East Africa around 100,000 years ago, with some migrating to Africa’s other parts and beyond to Asia, Polynesia, Australia, Europe, and the Americas.
• Humans have several traits that have enabled them to compete with other species.
• Agile hands allowed tool-making and usage.
• Excellent color vision helped spot ripe fruit, game animals, and predators.
• Mastery of fire enabled cooking, warmth, and protection from nocturnal predators.
• Upright posture and bipedalism (walking on two legs) allowed efficient long-distance travel and carrying tools and food.
• Bipedalism also provided a better vantage point for spotting distant objects.
• Linguistic abilities facilitated sharing knowledge, planning, and forming complex civilizations.
• Larger brains supported these characteristics and required larger skulls.
• An upright posture limits the birth canal size, making childbirth more difficult compared to other mammals.
• Newborns have large heads relative to their size; their brains must grow after birth.
• Parental care is essential for brain development and learning in mammals and birds.
• Humans’ extended period of childhood allows for a more adaptable and general-purpose brain.
• The human brain, although smaller in absolute size compared to those of elephants or whales, is proportionally larger relative to body weight.
• The human brain constitutes 2.3% of body weight, whereas an elephant’s brain is only 0.2% of its body weight.
• Small animals like shrews have higher brain-to-body weight ratios but less complex brains.
• Brain size doesn’t need to increase proportionally with body size; intellectual ability depends on the number of neurons available for higher cognitive functions.
• Primate brains, especially larger ones, have more neurons per gram compared to rodent brains.
• Genetic changes in human brain evolution include a slowing of brain development, allowing for more growth.
• Human brains average 350 grams at birth and reach about 1,400 grams by late adolescence.
• Neoteny, or extended youth, describes this prolonged brain maturation and retention of infantile characteristics in the mature human head and brain.

Ethical Issues in Research with Humans and Other Animal

• The book provides facts about the structure and function of the nervous system.
• These facts result from carefully designed experiments.
• Experiments may involve computer simulations, individual cells, and various animals and humans.
• Neuroscience research involving humans and animals is subject to important ethical considerations.
• This section will address these ethical issues in more detail.

Research with Animals

• Most research described in the book involves experimentation on living animals.
• Ethical considerations are important when using animals for research purposes.
• Humane treatment of animals is crucial and involves proper procedures to maintain good health, sanitary conditions, and prevent suffering.
• Anesthetics and analgesics are used to prevent pain during and after surgery.
• Developed societies have strict regulations regarding the care of laboratory animals, ensuring humane treatment.
• Research involving animals must be worthwhile, meaning it must offer benefits that justify the use of animals.
• Humans have historically used animals for many purposes, such as food, clothing, work, and companionship.
• Scientific researchers are subject to more rigorous standards of animal care compared to pet owners.
• In the United States, institutions receiving federal research funding must have an Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC).
• The IACUC reviews all proposals for animal research to ensure humane treatment and compliance with regulations.
• Noninvasive animal research must also be reviewed and approved by the IACUC.
• Animal rights activists often focus on animal research, despite it being a crucial and indispensable use of animals for medical progress.
• Research on animals is necessary for understanding and treating diseases such as ebola, malaria, AIDS, and various neurological disorders.
• Progress in medicine, such as the development of vaccines and treatments, relies on research involving animals.
• Neurological disorders, such as strokes, can be better understood and potentially treated through biological research involving animals.
• Research has shown that drugs can prevent brain damage from strokes, which was discovered through experiments on animals.
• Research on laboratory animals has led to discoveries related to neurological and mental disorders, including Parkinson’s disease, schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, and more.
• Continued research with laboratory animals is essential for solving persistent medical problems.
• Tissue cultures and computers can assist research but cannot replace living organisms for studying complex behaviors and the nervous system.

Research with Humans

• Not all neuroscience research is conducted with animal models; human participants also play a crucial role.
• Research with human participants is essential for advancing knowledge of the brain in both health and disease.
• Like animal research, human research is subject to strict regulations and must be reviewed and approved by an Institutional Review Board (IRB).
• The IRB ensures the ethical treatment of volunteers in research, functioning similarly to the IACUC for animal research.
• Research with human participants must include informed consent and safeguards for protecting participant identity.
• Informed consent involves informing participants about the study’s nature, data collection and storage, and potential benefits and costs before obtaining their agreement to participate.
• Violating informed consent can result in ethical, legal, and financial consequences, as illustrated by the Havasupai Tribe v. Arizona Board of Regents case, which involved the misuse of blood samples.
• Protecting participant identity is crucial, especially in sensitive behavioral neuroscience research, such as studies on substance abuse.
• Neuroethics, an emerging interdisciplinary field, focuses on understanding the ethical implications of neuroscience research and developing best practices.
• A 2014 expert panel report explored ethical challenges in neuroscience, including issues related to neuroimaging and brain privacy, dementia and personality changes, cognitive enhancement, and deep brain stimulation.
• The panel recommended integrating ethics and science through education at all levels.

The Future of Neuroscience: Careers and Strategies for Learning

• Behavioral neuroscience is the study of the relationship between the brain and behavior.
• Behavioral neuroscientists investigate how the brain influences thoughts, emotions, actions, and physiological processes.
• They use various research methods, including experiments with animals, brain imaging, and neuropsychological studies in humans.
• This field explores topics such as neural communication, memory, emotions, learning, perception, and mental disorders.
• Careers in behavioral neuroscience can range from academic research, healthcare, and clinical settings to pharmaceutical industries, neurotechnology, and cognitive science.
• To learn more about behavioral neuroscience, one can engage in studying academic textbooks, participating in laboratory research, and staying updated on current scientific literature.
• Strategies for learning this discipline include active reading, engaging with hands-on experiments, utilizing critical thinking, and applying knowledge to real-world scenarios.

Careers in Neuroscience

• Behavioral neuroscience is a branch of neuroscience that studies the physiology of behavior and the role of the nervous system in controlling behavior.
• Neuroscience encompasses various aspects of the nervous system, including anatomy, chemistry, physiology, development, and functioning.
• Research within neuroscience ranges from molecular genetics to social behavior.
• Behavioral neuroscientists investigate behavioral phenomena in both humans and animals.
• They explore the nervous system’s interaction with the body, particularly with the endocrine system, in regulating behavior.
• Topics of study include sensory processes, sleep, emotional behavior, ingestive behavior, aggressive behavior, sexual behavior, parental behavior, and learning and memory.
• Behavioral neuroscientists also study animal models of human disorders like anxiety, depression, obsessions and compulsions, phobias, and schizophrenia.
• The field of behavioral neuroscience has been known by various names, such as physiological psychology, biological psychology, biopsychology, psychobiology, and behavioral neuroscience.
• Behavioral neuroscience overlaps with neurology and cognitive neuroscience.
• Neurologists are physicians who diagnose and treat nervous system diseases, often studying brain-damaged individuals and using brain-imaging techniques.
• Cognitive neuroscientists, typically holding Ph.D.s in psychology, also research brain function and behavior.
• Most behavioral neuroscientists earn Ph.D.s from graduate programs in psychology or interdisciplinary programs that may include faculty from departments like psychology, biology, chemistry, biochemistry, or computer science.
• Behavioral neuroscientists primarily work at colleges and universities, engaging in teaching and research.
• Others work in research institutions, such as government or private labs, or in industry, particularly pharmaceutical companies.
• To become a professor or independent researcher, a Ph.D. is usually required, with some entering research after earning an M.D.
• Many behavioral neuroscientists undertake postdoctoral positions to gain additional research experience, often spending two or more years in a senior scientist’s lab.
• Postdoctoral researchers write and publish articles on their findings, which play a crucial role in securing independent positions.
• Research technicians with bachelor’s or master’s degrees also contribute significantly to neuroscience research, often working under senior scientists.
• These technicians gain valuable experience, with opportunities to manage and complete research projects independently over time.

Strategies for Learning

• The brain is a complex organ responsible for all human abilities and complexities.
• Scientists have been studying the brain for many years, with recent progress significantly enhancing understanding.
• Due to the complexity of the brain, it is impossible to summarize the progress in just a few sentences, requiring detailed study.
• Information in this book is organized logically to build knowledge progressively.
• Understanding certain concepts may require prior understanding of related topics.
• The book is written with the intent to be clear and vivid, using simple examples wherever possible.
• Mastering the material requires active engagement rather than passive reading.
• Behavioral neuroscience involves more than memorizing facts, though facts like names of nervous system parts, chemicals, drugs, and scientific terms are necessary.
• Knowledge in neuroscience is still developing, and many facts may be revised in the future as new discoveries are made.
• Relying solely on memorized facts could be limiting, as the field continues to evolve.
• Practical advice for studying includes organizing information into meaningful groups, linking new information to prior knowledge for better understanding.
• Actively thinking about new information and integrating it with what you already know facilitates deeper learning.
• Highlighting or underlining text without organizing the information into personal notes is passive and does not aid learning as effectively as writing or typing your own notes.
• Research shows that highlighting or underlining alone does not improve test scores and can sometimes hinder learning.
• Teaching the material to someone else helps solidify understanding and emphasizes the most important aspects of the content.
• Preparing to teach others about a reading assignment has been shown to improve performance on later tests compared to simply preparing for a test.
• Study in the environment where you will be tested, as state-dependent learning theory suggests that information learned in one environment is most easily recalled in the same environment.
• The context of the environment (e.g., color of walls, seating, people) can provide important cues that enhance memory recall during a test.
• If studying in the same environment isn’t possible, try to replicate elements of the test environment (e.g., same computer, pens, note-taking method) or study in multiple environments to avoid dependence on specific cues.
• An experiment by Godden & Baddeley (1975) showed that scuba divers recalled information best when tested in the same environment where they learned it (underwater vs. on land).
• Study with minimal distractions, as the brain works most effectively when focused on one challenging task at a time.
• Avoid distractions like televisions, social media, and phones, and aim for a quiet study environment.
• A study by Lee et al. (2012) demonstrated that students who tried to multitask by reading and paying attention to a TV show performed worst on a test compared to those who studied in silence or ignored the TV.
• Spread out study sessions, as studying new information in shorter, spaced sessions leads to better recall than cramming in one long session.
• Plan to study new material more than once, ideally on different days, for improved retention and application.
• Though study schedules should be personalized, a general rule of thumb is to space study sessions by one to several days.
• Study the most challenging topics either first or last, taking advantage of the primacy effect (better recall of first-learned information) and recency effect (better recall of last-learned information).
• For difficult topics, study them early or late in the session to increase the likelihood of recalling them later.
• Use mnemonics as helpful shortcuts for retaining new information, such as story chaining, the method of loci, or acrostics.
• Mnemonics can help link disparate pieces of information together in memorable ways, such as using FPOT to recall the lobes of the cortex: frontal, parietal, occipital, and temporal.
• The text, animations, interactives, and illustrations are integrated as closely as possible to enhance learning, ensuring that illustrations are presented at the appropriate time.
• Each chapter starts with a case study that profiles a person’s real-life experience, a list of learning objectives, and a figure of the brain to make concepts relatable and help focus on key ideas.
• Italicized words indicate either emphasis or the introduction of a new term, while boldface words highlight key terms important to the vocabulary of a behavioral neuroscientist.
• At the end of each section, there are two types of review activities: section reviews that remind you of key points and thought questions that encourage you to apply or expand on the material.
• Chapter Review Questions at the end of each chapter help assess your understanding of the concepts covered.
• The next chapter begins with the structure and functions of neurons, the most important elements of the nervous system.