Introduction to Geography
Chapter – 1
INTRODUCTION
- Geography connects with all academic disciplines through its spatial perspective.
- Mapping phenomena forms the basis of geography’s relationship with other disciplines.
- Essential to understanding the world comprehensively.
- Fundamental concepts in geography lay the groundwork for deeper exploration.
- Encourages a geographer’s mindset by the end of study.
WHAT IS GEOGRAPHY?
- Geography derives from Greek “geographos,” meaning writing about the Earth.
- Differs from geology by encompassing both physical and human aspects.
- Divided into human (social science) and physical (natural science) geography.
- Focuses on the spatial perspective of the Earth.
- Key question: “What is where, and why?”
- Human geography studies people, their locations, lifestyles, and interactions globally.
- Physical geography studies environmental phenomena and processes.
- Both geographies explore spatial changes over time and their reasons.
- Interdisciplinary connections with history due to Earth’s dynamic nature.
Geography and its relationship to other disciplines
- Geography intersects with history and numerous academic disciplines.
- Medical geography studies spatial patterns of health and disease.
- Mapping disease spread aids understanding of transmission and causes.
- Economic geography examines economic activities in different locations.
- Proximity to clientele influences business success.
- Consultation of transportation networks and population maps is beneficial.
MAPPING THE WORLD
- Maps have been used since before 6,000 B.C.
- Modern maps are sophisticated, complex, and precise, aided by GPS technology.
- Maps depict the Earth’s curved surface on a flat plane through projection.
- The Earth is an oblate spheroid, not a perfect sphere.
- Map projections introduce distortions in size, shape, distance, and direction.
- Example: Mercator projection makes Greenland appear larger than South America.
- Scale of a map is the ratio of map distance to actual distance on Earth.
- Different scales (e.g., 1:100,000 vs. 1:10,000) show varying levels of detail.
- Scale can be expressed as a ratio, bar graph, or verbal statement.
- Scale also refers to the spatial extent of phenomena being studied.
- Examining the world at different scales reveals different patterns and connections.
WHERE IN THE WORLD AM I?
- Maps provide fundamental information on location in geography.
- Not all places have street addresses, so geographic grids are used.
- The geographic grid consists of meridians (longitude) and parallels (latitude).
- Meridians are half circles connecting the poles; longitude is their numbering system.
- Parallels are circles parallel to the equator; latitude is their numbering system.
- Intersections of meridians and parallels pinpoint locations on Earth.
- Prime Meridian: 0° longitude, passes through Greenwich, England.
- International Date Line: roughly 180° longitude, opposite the Prime Meridian.
- Crossing the International Date Line changes the day of the week instantaneously.
- Movement westward adds a day; movement eastward subtracts a day.
- Located in the Pacific Ocean to minimize disruptions to daily calendars.
- The International Date Line doesn’t follow exactly 180° to accommodate islands sharing the same calendar date.
HOW DO I DESCRIBE WHERE I AM?
- Geographers focus on describing places through site and situation.
- Site: physical characteristics like topography, vegetation, climate.
- Situation: relative location and connectivity to surrounding areas.
- Example: New Orleans – site below sea level, prone to flooding; situation connected to Mississippi River and Gulf of Mexico.
- Regions help understand connections between places.
- Formal regions: characterized by homogeneity in physical or human characteristics.
- Example: US states map where each state represents a formal region.
- Functional regions (nodal regions): centered around a focal point or node.
- Example: city with central business district as a focal point.
- Even smaller examples include Wi-Fi hotspots or delivery areas.
- Regions are conceptual and not absolute; boundaries can be disputed.
- Example: American South as a formal region – criteria vary (e.g., food, dialect, political affiliation).
- Vernacular (perceptual) regions depend on perspectives or mental maps of people.
- Region definition involves generalities and varying opinions.
GEOGRAPHIC DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS
- Remote sensing: Acquiring Earth’s surface data from aerial platforms (satellites, airplanes, drones).
- Provides valuable information on both human and physical characteristics of places.
- Example: Satellite imagery showing human impact on Amazon rainforest.
- Thermal infrared images reveal temperature variations (warm in red, cool in blue).
- Geographic Information Systems (GIS): Integrates computer hardware and software for storing, analyzing, and displaying geographic data.
- Data stored in layers with precise georeferencing (latitude, longitude).
- Each data point linked to attributes like elevation, soils, income, ethnicity.
- Allows sophisticated queries and analysis, e.g., relationships between income and ethnicity, soil types and vegetation.
- Capabilities include least-cost path analysis, line-of-sight perspectives, and 3-D urban modeling.
- Widely used by businesses, government agencies for planning, logistics, crime monitoring.
- Fast-growing job market in GIS technology across sectors (local, state, national governments, private businesses).
- Example: U.S. Census Bureau’s TIGER database utilizes GIS extensively.
CHANGES IN PLACES: DIFFUSION
- Dynamic Earth: Constantly changing due to various factors.
- Diffusion: Spread of ideas, objects, inventions, and practices from place to place.
- Relocation diffusion: Occurs when people migrate and bring ideas with them.
- Expansion diffusion: Spread outward from a core area.
- Can spread person-to-person (like contagious diseases) or through hierarchical structures.
- Example: Cultural practices originating in major cities spreading to smaller cities.
- Example: Spread of religions globally through both relocation and expansion diffusion.
- Example: Domesticated plants and animals diffusing extensively across the Earth.
- Shows how human activities and innovations shape geographic landscapes over time.
THE HUMAN-ENVIRONMENT RELATIONSHIP
- Spatial diffusion and physical terrain:
- Mountains can limit migration and transportation, slowing or stopping diffusion.
- Example: Diffusion hindered by mountain ranges.
- Human-environment relationship:
- Environment significantly affects human activities; humans can also shape the environment.
- Environmental determinism:
- Rejected idea that environment determines culture.
- Example: Outdated views suggesting climate determines cultural traits.
- Impact recognized, e.g., Anasazi affected by drought in American Southwest.
- Possibilism:
- Idea that humans can adapt to environmental challenges.
- Technology helps societies adapt and develop despite environmental limitations.
- Example: Dubai’s indoor ski slopes in desert climate.
- Environmental impacts on societies:
- Advanced societies still vulnerable to natural disasters.
- Examples: Hurricanes in the US, tsunamis in Japan, wildfires.
- Shows environment’s power over human societies despite technological advances.
KEY TERMS DEFINED
Diffusion – spread of ideas, objects, inventions, and other practices from place to place.
Environmental determinism – the idea that the natural or physical environment shapes and creates cultures; in other words, the environment essentially dictates culture.
Expansion diffusion – the type of diffusion involves the spread outward from a core area that contains the idea, cultural practice, etc. and can occur from person-to- person contact (as with a contagious disease) or through a hierarchy.
Formal region – a region defined by homogeneity in one or a number of different characteristics.
Functional region – a region that is define by a central node or focal point to which other places in the region are connected.
Geographic information systems – combines computer hardware and software in a system that stores, analyzes and displays geographic data with a “computer mapping” capability in a system of data layers.
Geography – literally, writing about the Earth; the study of the physical and environmental aspects of the world, from a spatial perspective.
International Date Line – roughly follows 180 o longitude.
Latitude – the numbering system for parallels.
Longitude – the numbering system for meridians.
Meridian – half circles that connect the North and South poles.
Parallel – circles that encompass the Earth and are parallel to the equator.
Possibilism – the theory people can adapt to their environmental conditions and choose from many alternatives (possibilities), despite the limitations that the environment pose.
Prime Meridian – 0o longitude, passes through Greenwich, England.
Projection – the process of transferring locations from the Earth’s curved surface to a flat map.
Region – an area that shares some sort of common characteristic that binds the area into a whole.
Relocation diffusion – the diffusion process in which people migrate or move to a new area, and bring their ideas, objects, and the like with them.
Remote sensing – acquisition of data about the Earth’s surface from aerial platforms such as satellites, airplanes, or drones.
Scale – ratio of the length or distance on the map versus the length or distance on the Earth or ground (actual); can also refer to the spatial extent of some phenomenon.
Site – a way to describe a location; refers to the physical characteristics, such as the topography, vegetative cover, climatic conditions, etc.
Situation – a way to describe a location by referring to the area surrounding the place, and is sometimes referred to as relative location.