What Is Psychology?

• Psyche, a mortal with exceptional beauty, drew the jealousy of Aphrodite.
• Aphrodite’s plan to make Psyche fall in love with an ugly man backfired when Eros fell in love with her.
• Eros showered Psyche with gifts but kept his face hidden; suspicion arose when Psyche’s sisters intervened.
• Betraying Eros’ wishes, Psyche tried to see his face, leading to Eros abandoning her.
• Psyche sought Aphrodite’s help to reunite with Eros, facing impossible tasks.
• Psyche’s perseverance led to completing the trials, reuniting with Eros, and transforming into a goddess.
• Psyche symbolizes the human soul triumphing over life’s challenges.
• The Greek word “psyche” means soul and is often represented as a butterfly.
• Psychology, rooted in the word “psyche,” refers to the scientific study of mind and behavior.
• The scientific method involves proposing hypotheses, conducting experiments, and publishing results.
• Empiricism, based on observation and experimentation, is integral to scientific knowledge acquisition.
• Psychology was recognized as an academic discipline in the late 1800s, transitioning from philosophy.
• Psychology combines aspects of natural science (biology) and social science.
• Psychology majors are popular due to diverse interests, fulfilling requirements, and career aspirations.
• Notable psychology majors include Mark Zuckerberg, Jon Stewart, Natalie Portman, and Wes Craven.
• About 6% of bachelor degrees in the U.S. are granted in psychology.
• Education in psychology enhances critical thinking skills and scientific literacy.
• Psychology students develop communication skills and learn to evaluate diverse information sources.
• Understanding factors shaping behavior, psychology students appreciate the interplay of biology, environment, and experiences.
• Psychology education emphasizes basic principles, diversity across individuals and cultures.

History of Psychology

• Psychology’s experimental roots in the 19th century, distinct from philosophy.
• Wilhelm Wundt and William James credited as founders of psychology as a science.
• Wundt’s structuralism focused on conscious experience, using introspection.
• James’ functionalism emphasized studying the function of behavior in the world.
• Freud’s psychoanalytic theory explored the unconscious mind and childhood experiences.
• Gestalt psychologists (Wertheimer, Koffka, Köhler) introduced principles of perception as a whole.
• Behaviorism, led by Pavlov, Watson, and Skinner, shifted focus to observable behavior.
• Pavlov’s classical conditioning and Watson’s behaviorism dominated early 20th-century psychology.
• B.F. Skinner’s operant conditioning studied consequences in shaping behavior.
• Humanism emerged as a response to behaviorism and psychoanalysis.
• Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy of needs emphasized innate potential for good in humans.
• Carl Rogers and Maslow were key figures in humanistic psychology.
• Humanistic psychology rejected reductionist experimentation, emphasizing the whole human being.
• Humanistic research programs focused on qualitative and quantitative aspects of human experience.
• The cognitive revolution emerged in the 1950s, shifting focus from behaviorism to mental processes in psychology.
• Ulric Neisser’s 1967 textbook “Cognitive Psychology” marked a key moment in establishing cognitive psychology courses.
• Noam Chomsky played a significant role in challenging behaviorism’s influence, advocating for the inclusion of mental functioning in psychology.
• The cognitive revolution fostered collaboration between American and European psychologists, leading to an interdisciplinary approach known as the cognitive sciences.
• Feminist psychology emerged in response to biases in early psychology, addressing issues of gender and cultural biases in research and practice.
• Naomi Weisstein’s 1968 critique stimulated a feminist revolution by challenging male psychologists’ biases in studying women.
• Feminist psychology involved re-evaluating women’s contributions to psychology, studying gender differences, and questioning male-biased scientific approaches.
• Multicultural psychology recognizes the impact of culture on psychology, highlighting the need to avoid generalizing findings from one culture to another.
• Cross-cultural psychology often focused on descriptive differences without exploring underlying causes, posing a limitation in understanding cause-and-effect relationships.
• The history of multicultural psychology in the United States includes early contributions from African American psychologists like Cecil Sumner.
• Early African American psychologists emphasized intelligence testing, and contemporary research explores topics like learning style, community, and spirituality.
• The American Psychological Association has ethnic-based organizations to support research on the impact of culture on individual and social psychology.

Contemporary Psychology

• The American Psychological Association (APA) reflects the diversity of contemporary psychology, with 56 divisions covering various specialties.
• The Association for Psychological Science (APS), founded in 1988, focuses on advancing the scientific orientation of psychology and publishes research journals.
• Ethnic-based organizations like NLPA, AAPA, ABPsi, and SIP provide networking opportunities and study psychological and social issues within specific communities.
• The major subdivisions within psychology include biopsychology, evolutionary psychology, sensation and perception, cognitive psychology, developmental psychology, personality psychology, and social psychology.
• Biopsychology explores the influence of biology on behavior, often incorporating neuroscience in interdisciplinary research.
• Evolutionary psychology studies the ultimate biological causes of behavior, considering genetic and adaptive factors influenced by Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution.
• Sensation and perception involve interdisciplinary research on physiological aspects of sensory systems and psychological experiences.
• Cognitive psychology focuses on studying thoughts and their relationship to experiences and actions, often referred to as cognitive science due to its interdisciplinary nature.
• Developmental psychology examines development across the lifespan, from physical maturation to changes in cognitive skills, moral reasoning, and social behavior.
• Personality psychology explores patterns of thoughts and behaviors that make individuals unique, with modern research emphasizing quantitative approaches and the Big Five traits.
• Social psychology studies how individuals interact with and relate to others, exploring topics such as explanations for behavior, prejudice, attraction, and interpersonal conflicts.
• Stanley Milgram’s controversial obedience study highlighted the impact of authority on individuals’ willingness to inflict harm on others, influencing ethical guidelines for psychological research.
• Industrial-Organizational (I-O) psychology applies psychological theories to address issues in industrial and organizational settings, focusing on personnel management and workplace efficiency.
• Health psychology explores how biological, psychological, and sociocultural factors interact to affect health, emphasizing the biopsychosocial model.
• Sport and exercise psychology studies the psychological aspects of sport performance, motivation, and mental well-being, including broader topics related to mental and physical performance in demanding conditions.
• Clinical psychology focuses on the diagnosis and treatment of psychological disorders, with influences from psychoanalytic, humanistic, behaviorist, and cognitive approaches.
• Counseling psychology addresses emotional, social, vocational, and health-related outcomes in psychologically healthy individuals.
• Forensic psychology deals with psychological questions in the justice system, including assessing competency to stand trial, providing expert opinions, and consulting on legal issues.
• Forensic psychologists often act as expert witnesses, applying their understanding of both psychology and the legal system.
• Criminal profilers, a subset of forensic psychologists, consult with law enforcement on criminal investigations.
• Clinical psychology receives significant attention in popular media, but it represents just one area of psychology.

Careers in Psychology

• Psychologists pursue various careers, requiring different degrees: doctoral for academia and some specialties, master’s for others.
• Earning a PhD involves completing a dissertation, defending it before a committee, and conferral of the degree.
• PhD holders may seek faculty positions at colleges or universities, involving teaching, research, and service.
• Adjunct faculty members, with advanced degrees, often have primary careers outside academia or lack a doctoral degree.
• Postdoctoral training programs allow young scientists to develop research skills before applying for faculty positions.
• PsyD is a clinical psychology doctoral degree emphasizing clinical application, while PhD focuses more on research.
• Licensed clinical or counseling psychologists may work in private practice, hospitals, or legal settings, administering tests and conducting therapy.
• Master’s degree holders in psychology can work in psychotherapy, school psychology, sport psychology, or industrial settings.
• Bachelor’s degree holders in psychology find careers in diverse fields, including case management, sales, human resources, high school teaching, and healthcare.