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Book No. – 50 (History)
Book Name – Political Violence in Ancient India (Upinder Singh)
What’s Inside the Chapter? (After Subscription)
1. Kings. Brahmanas, and Temples in Vakataka Kingship
2. The Gupta Model of the Paramount King
3. The Nitisara: A Political Treatise for Mature Monarchies
3.1. The Morphology of the State
3.2. Violence against the King
3.3. Force and Punishment
3.4. The Centrality of Self-Control
4. Kalidasa and the Aestheticization of Kingship
4.1. The Abhijnanashakuntala
4.2. The Raghuvamsha
5. Vishakhadatta’s Political Realism
6. Pragmatic Politics in Animal Tales: The Panchatantra
6.1. Kings and Courtiers
6.2. Friendship and Alliance
6.3. The Moral of the Stories
7. The Dharma and Artha View of Politics
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Maturity
Political Violence in Ancient India – Upinder Singh
Chapter – 3
Table of Contents
- An imposing scene carved in relief at Udayagiri near Vidisha depicts Vishnu in his boar (Varaha) incarnation, rescuing the earth goddess Prithvi from the waters.
- Vishnu is shown with a muscular human body and the head of a boar, exuding masculine power, with his right hand on his hip and left hand on his knee.
- Goddess Earth clings to Vishnu’s tusks, and his foot rests on the serpent deity, who gazes up at him in obeisance.
- The scene includes sages, celestial beings, and river goddesses Ganga and Yamuna.
- The broken torso of a human figure behind the serpent raises questions—does it represent Gupta king Samudragupta, Chandragupta II, or a feudatory ruler as a devotee, or does the Varaha figure itself represent the king?
- Water from a cistern flowed through the rock path to the base of Vishnu’s image, symbolizing the earth being raised from the ocean.
- The Udayagiri complex was created during the reign of Chandragupta II (circa 376–413 / 415 CE), showcasing military and religious expansions of the Gupta empire.
- Vishnu dominates Udayagiri, but other gods, including Shiva, are also represented, with an inscription noting a feudatory’s dedication of a Vishnu shrine.
- The Gupta presence is also noted at Sanchi, where Chandragupta II made grants alongside his military commander.
- The Udayagiri caves express a bold new vision of kingship intertwined with religiosity, marking a significant cultural and political statement.
- Vakataka territory in central-western India, particularly at Ramagiri (Ramtek hill), also shows royal religious developments, including temples dedicated to Vishnu and the Kevala Narasimha temple.
- The Vakataka royal ritual center near Nandivardhana reveals a complex of temples, including one likely dedicated to queen Prabhavatigupta.
- Pravarasena II, a Vakataka king, moved the capital to Pravarapura, near Mansar, where a palace complex and Shiva temple were found.
- Mansar also revealed a human sacrifice ritual through a clay figure with a hole in its breast, potentially associated with warding off evil spirits and a royal funerary monument for Prabhavatigupta.
- Ramagiri and Mansar reflect an integrated royal, residential, ceremonial, and religious center with high conceptualization and planning.
- Sectarian religion during this period saw kingship intertwined with the worship of the ruler’s personal deity (Vishnu or Shiva), but with acknowledgment of other deities and faiths.
- Hindu monolatrous cults emphasized devotion to one deity while still honoring others, and Buddhism and Jainismhad multiple figures of worship (Buddhas, bodhisattvas, tīrthaṅkaras).
- The sectarianism of the time was more inclusive than tolerance, reflecting a broad acceptance of various religious elements.
- The Gupta–Vakataka age was once seen as a classical age of empire-building but later viewed as the beginning of a feudal age due to political fragmentation.
- A more convincing view is that this period marked intensive state formation across the subcontinent, with several “circles of kings” within fluctuating relations of paramountcy and feudatory status.
- The Guptas and Vakatakas were the two major circles, with a marriage alliance between Prabhavatigupta (Gupta princess) and Rudrasena II (Vakataka prince).
- Prabhavatigupta exercised power during her husband’s and sons’ reigns, but after her death, the Gupta-Vakataka alliance turned to rivalry and conflict.
- Other regions, like Orissa and Andhra, saw the beginnings of sustained state formation during this time.
- In the far south, Kalabhra dislocation gave way to the rise of the Pandyas, Pallavas, and Chalukyas.
- The Guptas repelled a Huna invasion, but later Huna Toramana gained control of parts of northern and western India.
- The period of Gupta and Vakataka rule saw intra-dynastic conflicts and inter-dynastic wars.
- The Puranas systematized the political memory of dynasties, marking a new historical approach, starting with the Mahabharata war and continuing through to the Guptas.
- The Puranas envisioned India as a geographical, political, and cultural macro-unit, moving from mythical to historical accounts.
- The period after the third century marked the emergence of a classical ideal of kingship, seen in texts, inscriptions, and art.
- The royal epigraphic records of the time show a close integration of political and religious ideas, especially related to Vaishnavism and Shaivism.
- Inscriptions and land grants to Brahmanas indicate the growing importance of the Hindu temple and a strong king–Brahmana alliance.
- The Brahmana village (brahmadeya or agrahāra) became a significant feature in the political and rural landscape.
- The king–Brahmana alliance played a key role in the legitimation of kingship and political violence.
Kings, Brahmanas, and Temples in Vakataka Kingship
- Most Vakataka inscriptions are in Sanskrit prose, while those of ministers and feudatories are often in verse.
- Vakataka kings are usually called mahārāja (great king) and sometimes samrāṭ (emperor).
- Vakataka kings claim Brahmanical identity, belonging to the Vishnuvriddha gotra, signaling a departure from the traditional Kshatriya association.
- Brahmanical influence is evident in Vakataka kingship, including their sectarian affiliation to either Shaiva or Vaishnava traditions.
- Harishena is associated with the Ajanta caves, although no direct evidence links him to the patronage of these caves.
- A distinct vocabulary of political hierarchy emerged, with feudatories described as meditating at their overlord’s feet, but these hierarchies were not rigid.
- Subordinate kings often imitate or outdo their overlords in praise.
- Wealthy ministers, like Varahadeva, made lavish religious endowments and patronized Buddhist monasteries.
- Vakataka kings are sometimes titled Dharmamahārāja (great king of dharma), and their religious affiliation is prominently stated.
- Kings performed grand Vedic sacrifices to advertise their power and liberality, such as Soma sacrifices and aśvamedhas.
- Epic elements from the Ramayana are seen in Vakataka history, with kings like Pravarasena II composing works like Setubandha.
- Inscriptions reference kings’ roles in following the examples of Yudhishthira or Krishna.
- Vakataka kings often built temples, including naming them after themselves, such as the Pravareshvara temple.
- Despite being mostly Shaiva worshippers, there were also significant Vaishnava elements found at Vakataka sites, with depictions of scenes from the Ramayana.
- The sectarianism of Vakatakas was inclusive, incorporating various deities and sects.
- Poetry became part of the political discourse, with kings like Sarvasena and Pravarasena II patronizing or authoring Prakrit and Sanskrit poetry.
- Harivijaya, written by Sarvasena, and Setubandha, written by Pravarasena II, were significant works from this period.
- Intra-dynastic political violence is subtly alluded to in some poetic works, particularly through references to Vibhishana in Setubandha.
- Royal land grants gained a performative aspect, as shown in Pandhurna plates and Pandava references.
- Grants were often accompanied by sacred rituals like śrāddha ceremonies and libations.
- Formulaic threats against those who revoked land grants appeared, referencing the Mahabharata for karmic retribution.
- A Vakataka inscription includes a caveat that Brahmanas could be punished if they committed certain offenses like treason, theft, or adultery.
- The association between land grants and political violence is significant, as grants could be rescinded for offenses, including rebellion or war.