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Book No. – 52 (Political Science)
Book Name – Political Philosophy (Richard G. Stevens)
What’s Inside the Chapter? (After Subscription)
1. Modern Political Philosophy
1.1. Niccolo Machiavelli
1.2. Thomas Hobbes
1.3. John Locke
2. Postmodern Thought
2.1. Jean-Jacques Rousseau
3. The Nineteenth Century
3.1. Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel
3.2. Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels
4. The Twentieth Century
4.1. Friedrich Nietzsche
5. The End of History
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Modern Political Philosophy and Postmodern Thought
Chapter – 9
Table of Contents
Modern Political Philosophy
- Philosophy originated with the Greeks, starting with Thales around 636–546 BCE, marking the beginning of a new intellectual tradition.
- Philosophy appeared as a discordant element in Greek cities, countering established opinions and prejudices shaped by poets like Homer.
- According to Plato’s allegory of the cave, people are immersed in darkness, believing shadows to be the truth, representing the influence of poetry on city-dwellers’ views on good and bad.
- Philosophy challenged these prejudices, making philosophers appear impious and disturbing to the cities.
- Anaxagoras (c.500–428 BCE) was the first philosopher prosecuted in Athens for philosophizing.
- Socrates was another famous example of tension between philosophy and the city, depicted by Aristophanes in the comedy Clouds as an impious figure who corrupted youth.
- In the comedy, Socrates’ school is destroyed by Pheidippides and Strepsiades, alongside Hermes.
- During his trial, Socrates blamed envy and slander, rooted in old accusations that he looked into natural phenomena, which were falsely attributed to him by a comic poet.
- Socrates denied his interest in such matters during the trial, but later admitted to having once studied them, shifting focus to political philosophy.
- Cicero acknowledges Socrates as the originator of political philosophy, marking a shift from natural philosophy to political concerns.
- The possibility exists that political philosophy was perfected by Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle, based on the idea of human nature and the nature of the political.
- If human nature and political nature are constant, political philosophy has not evolved but confronted new political circumstances.
- The introduction of revealed religion (Judaism, Christianity, and Islam) might have been a critical moment in political philosophy’s history, presenting a new challenge.
- Medieval political philosophy may not represent change but a confrontation with revealed religion, where philosophers adapted or evaded this new context.
- Thomas Aquinas might be seen as adapting political philosophy, making natural law align with Aristotle’s natural right.
- Averroes might be viewed as evading the challenge, while Maimonides could fit as another example of adaptation.
- The question arises whether Aquinas’ adaptation of Aristotle introduces a discordant element into political philosophy or simply reconciles it with God.
Niccolo` Machiavelli
- Chapter Eight on Machiavelli is titled “A Kind of Betrayal,” marking a significant departure from classical political philosophy.
- Machiavelli offers an alternative to classical political philosophy, representing a straightforward change, not an evolution.
- He undercuts classical political philosophy, which he views as impractical, and biblical religion, especially Christianity, which he sees as debilitating.
- Aristotle linked ethical questions with political questions, while Aquinas separated them, but Machiavelli perverts ethics to serve political goals.
- Machiavelli’s approach separates ethics and politics, making ethics the tool for achieving political objectives without ethical considerations.
- This is often summarized by the phrase “the end justifies the means,” but for Machiavelli, ends are not judged by any external standard.
- For Machiavelli, politics is self-contained, with no higher standard to judge it, and Christianity is seen as an impediment to political objectives.
- He views the Roman gods as beneficial for Romans because they were tailored to Roman purposes, in contrast to the Christian God, which hinders political goals.
- Machiavelli is the first political philosopher to advocate for change in political philosophy, with a new outlook on human nature and political order.
- Classical political philosophy focuses on the best regime, human perfection, happiness, justice, and truth, whereas Machiavelli focuses on humans as brutish or clever beings.
- The primary concern becomes the nature of a political order that accommodates these human traits.
- Socrates originated political philosophy, Plato expanded it cautiously, and Aristotle turned it into a teachable science.
- Machiavelli’s ideas awaited wider acceptance, which was eventually facilitated by Thomas Hobbes and his work.