DEGREES OF MONISM

• The issue between determinism and indeterminism relates to the philosophical distinction between monism and pluralism.

• Monism emphasizes the unity of the universe more, while pluralism emphasizes the plurality or diversity.

• The difference between monism and pluralism is a matter of degree, with no precise definitions.

• If indeterminism is true, the world is seen as less unified than if everything is rigidly determined.

• Generally, monists emphasize the whole and order over the individual and spontaneity, while pluralists emphasize individuality and spontaneity more.

• Pluralists are generally more likely than monists to support the idea of human freedom.

• Being broadly monistic does not necessarily mean one is a determinist, nor does pluralism guarantee indeterminism, but there is a general tendency.

• Extremist monism asserts that everything is just One, denying the reality of plurality, making experiences appear illusory.

• Less extreme monism includes views like:

  • Everything is one substance with different attributes (e.g., Spinoza).

  • Everything is a single experience (Absolute Idealism).

  • Everything is part of one logical system (Coherence theory).

• Pluralism holds that the cosmos consists of multiple disconnected entities that could exist independently.

• Theism can be seen as a form of monism because it posits a single all-powerful mind creating and controlling the world, but it allows for relative independence of human minds.

• Pantheism is the view that God includes everything in himself, not merely creates it; historically, this has been condemned as unorthodox in Christianity.

• Orthodox Christianity emphasizes the absolute dependence of everything on a single omnipotent mind and purpose, leaning toward monism, but allows some limited human free will.

• Manichaeism is less monistic, positing the devil as an independent rival to God, exercising free will until inevitable defeat.

• Few philosophers adopted radical pluralism until recent times.

• Leibniz is often described as a pluralist because he denied interaction among beings, but he is more accurately a monist because all beings were created by a single God, with a pre-established harmony and everything determined by God’s purpose.

• Bertrand Russell asserted extreme pluralism, describing the universe as made of spots and jumps without unity or orderliness.

• Yet in an earlier work, Russell called himself a monist because he believed there is only one kind of substance, not two irreducibly different substances like body and mind.

FACTORS MAKING AGAINST PLURALISM

• The relative unimportance of pluralism historically can be attributed to several causes:

• (i) Belief in one God promotes a fairly monistic view of the universe; this belief has been widespread historically.

• (ii) The entailment theory of causation has generally been assumed, carrying a considerable degree of monism.

• According to entailment theory, if two things entail each other, they must belong together and cannot be separated.

• Everything we know is either directly or indirectly causally connected, reinforcing a monistic perspective.

• (iii) There is a strong intellectual and emotional tendency in many people, especially religious minds, to find it more satisfying to view the universe as a unity rather than a plurality.

• This tendency is particularly strong in mysticism, which emphasizes awareness of a deeper unity beyond everyday appearances.

• Mystics claim an insight into unity that goes beyond intellectual argument, often regarding the intellect with some contempt, yet sometimes using abstract intellectual arguments as a pathway.

• Spinoza is an example of a highly intellectual mystic who used strict logical proofs to support his doctrines but also claimed deeper mystical insight beyond reason.

• Mystics often argue that the world of everyday life is self-contradictory and unreal, preparing the way for mystical insight into true reality.

• The entailment theory of causation has been discussed earlier; the issue of theism will be addressed later.

• General monistic arguments often focus on the nature of relations but are subtle and complex.

• Monists generally believe that two different things can only be related if they form a unity and cannot be ultimately separated.

• From this belief, two conclusions arise:

  • Some say the universe must be a closely knit unity because everything is related.

  • Others argue the experienced world is not such a unity, so relations are ‘unreal’, mere imperfect expressions of a deeper unity.

• For these thinkers, the daily world is appearance because it lacks the close unity needed for intellectual and spiritual satisfaction.

• Pluralists respond by distinguishing between mere relation and logical connection, denying that relation proves logical inseparability.

• It is doubtful monists have proven that relation implies logical connection such that one thing could not exist without the other.

• However, from the entailment theory of causation, it may be established indirectly that every event is logically dependent and necessitated by the entire universe.

• If we had full knowledge and intelligence, we would see events could not have been otherwise.

• Even combining entailment causation with indeterminism, causality would be pervasive enough to make the world like a logical system with gaps due to free will.

• It is hard to sharply distinguish between the internal nature of a thing and its relations; removing all relations from a person would leave very little essence.