NATURE OF POLITICAL THEORY

WHAT IS POLITICAL

• Human beings live in society, which includes various institutions like family, school, religious organizations, and polity, each serving a specific purpose.
• Every institution involves organization and the use of authority, which implies a relationship of command and obedience, where the command is generally regarded as reasonable.
• Mild protests do not upset the authority in most cases.
• When an organization regulates the whole community, it takes the character of polity.
• Polity refers to an organization where rules are made and decisions are taken for the whole community, and authority is exercised over each member.
• The term ‘political’ refers to something related to a polity, focusing on what is public, as distinguished from private or something limited to a few people.
• Sheldon S. Wolin in Politics and Vision (1960) described the ‘political’ as uniquely concerned with what is common to the whole community.
• Certain functions, like national defense, internal order, dispensing justice, and economic regulation, are the primary responsibility of political institutions, as these functions benefit the entire community.
• State is an essential component of polity, enjoying a unique position among social institutions.
• Aristotle described humans as ‘political animals’, stating that living in a state is natural, and those who live outside the state are either beasts or angels.
• The terms ‘polity’, ‘politics’, and ‘political’ are derived from the Greek word ‘polis’, meaning city-state.
• Greek city-states were small communities separated by geographical barriers like forests, mountains, and seas.
• Each city-state had a compact social life and culture where all institutions and activities aimed at securing the ‘good life for the community’ were part of politics.
• In present-day society, the scope of politics is not as comprehensive as in ancient times.
• Today, there is a distinction between public and private spheres of human life, with the term ‘politics’ referring to the public domain.
• Decisions made by cabinet, parliament, election campaigns, political parties, and people’s movements seeking change in law and policy belong to politics.
• Religion, education, art, and culture do not fall under the sphere of politics unless their regulation is required to maintain public order and safety.

SCOPE OF POLITICAL THEORY

• Political theory refers to a systematic knowledge of political phenomena.
• Political theory involves three types of statements: (1) Empirical statement, based on observation through sense-experience, (2) Logical statement, based on reasoning, (3) Evaluative statement, based on value-judgment.
• Political science relies on empirical and logical statements, while political philosophy deals with evaluative statements.
• Positivism aims to build political science using the methodology of natural sciences, emphasizing a value-freeapproach.
• Logical Positivism claims that evaluative statements have no empirical or logical content, being subjective and emotional.
• Political theory is not confined to scientific knowledge; it must also address values, which are central to political philosophy.
• Values should not be based on individual preferences; they have a logical structure and can be discussed in dialogue to agree on universal principles for judging their validity.
• Determining values is crucial for sound public policy or decision-making to avoid irresponsible outcomes.
• George Catlin divides political theory into political science (dealing with facts) and political philosophy (concerned with values).
• Catlin stresses the importance of combining political science with sociology to understand the phenomena of controlin society.
• Political philosophy is concerned with the kingdom of ends or final values, focusing on questions like the national good and the good society.
• Andrew Hacker emphasizes that political scientists play a double role as both scientists and philosophers, and contributions to political theory require both realms.
• The role of political science is to describe and explain the realities of political behavior and power dynamics between states and citizens.
• Political philosophy prescribes the goals societies should pursue, focusing on right conduct and legitimate uses of power.
• Adequate knowledge of political science is essential for developing a sound political philosophy.
• Political philosophers must be aware of the existing realities and systematically study human needs and society’s capabilities.
• Political theory focuses on the study of political concepts and ideas using the normative-philosophical method, and the study of political institutions and behavior using the descriptive-scientific method.
• Each problem in political theory requires the use of the proper method for study.

Political Philosophy

Political philosophy refers to a branch of learning which is primarily concerned with moral and substantive dimensions of politics. Its central problems include the pursuit of good fife, questions pertaining to noris and values, good and evil, virtue and vice, means and ends, right and wrong, and visions of an ideal state and society. Political philosophy inquires Into the foundations of political life, grounds of political obligation, and moral worthiness of different political systems. It makes use of philosophical and historical method in determining the goals of public life. A major part of political philosophy coincides with moral and social philosophy.

Positivism

Positivism refers to the view that relies on scientific method as the only source of true knowledge. It rejects superstition, religion and metaphysics as pre-scientific forms of thought. It holds that all knowledge is ultimately based on sense-experience (ie, the experience gained through sight, sound, smell, taste and touch). Hence, the method used in the natural sciences (e.g. physics, chemistry, biology, etc.) must be adopted for any genuine inquiry in the field of social sciences.

Logical Positivism

Logical positivism refers to a school of thought founded by German sociologist Max Weber (1864-1920) and the members of Vienna Circle (Moritz Schlick, Ludwig Wittgenstein, A.J. Ayer, etc.) in the early decades of the twentieth century. It holds that reliable and valid knowledge in any field of inquiry can be obtained only by empirical method (ie. the observation based on sense-experience). The questions concerning values are beyond the scope of scientific knowledge; hence it is not possible to obtain reliable knowledge about them.

Scientific Method

Scientific method refers to the method of study which focuses on the observation of facts through sense-experience (that is the experience obtained through sight, sound, smell, taste and touch), inquires into their relationship and the laws governing this relationship. Its purpose is to obtain reliable knowledge about facts and give explanation of events. The use of scientific method in the study of politics is an essential feature of political science,

Normative Method

Normative method refers to the method of study which seeks to determine as to what we ought to do. It is the arena of reflection on our values and ideals. It is concerned with the judgement of good and evil, right and wrong. While agreement on certain principles on these issues is possible, nobody can claim to have a final word in this behalf. Each party is expected to advance sound arguments to substantiate its stand.

Philosophical Method

Philosophical method refers to the method of study which seeks to construct basic concepts in order to solve the riddles of the universe and human society. It raises certain basic questions and inquires as to which of the phenomena are capable of observation, and which of them are beyond our observation by sense-experience. In order to understand the things beyond our observation, we try to build a system of mought based on logic, and determine as to what type of knowledge would be reliable, and what type of knowledge would not be reliable. The knowledge obtained by normative method is also duly recognized under the philosophical method. A combination of normative and philosophical method in the study of politics gives rise to political philosophy.

NATURE OF POLITICAL SCIENCE

• Political science proceeds by scientific method through steps:

  • Observation relies on sense-experience alone, excluding supernatural or metaphysical causation.
  • Generalization is based on observation of regularities, establishing relation and correlation between factors/variables. It can be inductive (from particular to general) or deductive (from general to particular). Generalization must be expressed as a general rule, preferably in quantitative terms, and must be verifiable by experimentation.
  • Explanation gives reasons for the general rule, making observations meaningful. Without it, correlations may be coincidental.
  • Prediction and Prescription involve using known facts and general rules to predict outcomes and suggest measures for achieving objectives like efficiency, stability, and satisfaction.
• Behavioural approach exemplifies scientific study of politics, focusing on actual behaviour of human beings in political situations, rather than describing political institutions.
• In the behavioural approach, formal political institutions are dissolved into systems and processes, emphasizing the behaviour of political actors for scientific study.
• The post-behavioural approach insists that the achievements of political science should serve human values and ends, addressing human crises in various spheres of life, while maintaining the scientific method for studying facts.

NATURE OF POLITICAL PHILOSOPHY

• Political science deals with the ‘real’ (what people actually do in political situations), while political philosophy deals with the ‘ideal’ (what people ought to do in line with the ultimate good or purpose of human life).
• This view does not adequately define the scope of political philosophy.
• Political philosophy should be recognized for its critical function.
• D.D. Raphael (1976) stated that classical political philosophers depicted ideal forms of society, but their central concern was often to criticize existing society and promote understanding of concepts like justice.
• The fundamental purpose of traditional philosophy is the critical evaluation of beliefs, which differs from science, as science seeks explanation while philosophy seeks justification.
• Justification involves giving rational grounds to either accept or reject commonly taken-for-granted beliefs.
• A closely related function of political philosophy is the clarification of concepts such as society, authority, social class, justice, liberty, and democracy.
• These concepts are not only general but also vague.
• Clarification involves three main purposes: analysis, synthesis, and improvement of concepts.
• Analysis specifies the elements of a concept (e.g., defining sovereignty as supreme legal authority).
• Synthesis shows the logical relationships between two concepts (e.g., a right involves an obligation).
• Improvement recommends better definitions or uses of concepts for better clarity or coherence (e.g., applying sovereignty to legal authority, not coercive power).

CONCLUSION

• Political philosophy deals with the needs, objectives, and goals of human life, which cannot be scientifically determined but can be discussed by right-thinking people using available data and reasoning.
• These discussions may lead to an acceptable point based on the current level of social consciousness.
• Arguments can be drawn from the long tradition of political thought, with new arguments introduced and conclusions based on expanding knowledge.
• The search for values and the critical review of our position is an ongoing process, justifying the continuing pursuit of political philosophy.
• Political philosophy arose from a critical reflection of political activity, predating its formal advent and exemplifying the Socratic function of ‘speaking truth to power’.
• Hacker cautions against confusing political theory with ideology.
• A theory must be dispassionate and disinterested; a theorist with no personal interest in a political arrangement will have an unclouded vision of reality and the good life.
• Ideology justifies a particular system of power in society; an ideologue is an interested party with the aim to defend or change the status quo for a new distribution of power.
• When theory is clouded by ideology, it becomes distorted.
• Political philosophy seeks a disinterested search for principles of the good state and society.
• When ideology clouds philosophy, it becomes a rationalization for current or future political arrangements.
• Examples of ideologies: capitalism upholds private property as conducive to justice and social progress, while socialism supports social ownership of production for similar goals.
• Nationalism prioritizes national pride and interest, while internationalism disregards national boundaries for human progress.
• All ideologies are biased towards partisan ends, obstructing the search for truth.
• Political science demands a disinterested search for knowledge.
• Ideology distorts the description and explanation of social and political reality.
• Scholarly detachment is key to political theory in the true sense.

Ideology

Ideology refers to a set of ideas and arguments used to defend an existing or a proposed distribution of power in society. These ideas are accepted to be true by their upholders without inquiring into their validity. The ruling class may propagate its ideology to strengthen its own position while its opponents may use their idealogy to mobilize people to replace the existing order by a new one to achieve some great objectives.

SIGNIFICANCE OF POLITICAL THEORY

CONTROL OF SOCIAL LIFE

• Political science and political philosophy play complementary roles in political theory.
• The significance of political theory can be found in both areas.
• Scientific analysis of political life helps us understand and solve social problems.
• Knowledge of geology helps in understanding earthquake causes and preventing their havoc, similar to how political science helps understand the causes of conflict and violence in society and offers insights for prevention.
• Knowledge of physics enables electricity generation from thermal and water resources, while political science helps secure societal development from human resources.
• Knowledge of medical science enables control and cure of diseases, while political science provides remedies for political instability and social crises.

SOCIAL CRITICISM AND RECONSTRUCTION

• Political philosophy is concerned with right and wrong, good and evil in social life.
• When something is wrong in society, we seek logical grounds for criticism and speculate about creating a good society.
• A range of political philosophers, including Plato, Aristotle, St. Augustine, Machiavelli, Hobbes, Locke, Rousseau, Hegel, Marx, Mill, and Macpherson, have analyzed societal ills and proposed schemes for social reconstruction.
• These proposals are not accepted as final truth, but they provide valuable insights into societal ills and their remedies.
• Plato exposed the methods of selfish and cunning politicians in a democracy.
• Machiavelli described the character of selfish and greedy people.
• Marx identified the sources of conflict between the owners and non-owners of property.
• Macpherson examined the power structure in contemporary society, obstructing individual creative freedom.
• Insights from these thinkers can help in finding remedies for current societal ills.

CLARIFICATION OF CONCEPTS

• Political philosophy aids in the clarification of concepts used in analyzing social and political life.
• Clarifying concepts is essential for the development of knowledge in both science and philosophy.
• This task is particularly difficult in the field of political theory.
• Sheldon S. Wolin (1960) pointed out the tendency to use the same words in describing non-political and politicalphenomena, such as ‘authority of the father’, ‘authority of the church’, and ‘authority of Parliament’.
• Unlike the restricted technical meanings in mathematics and the natural sciences, political terms often have varying meanings in social and political discussions.
• When using common terms in political discourse, it’s important to determine their technical meaning.
• Terms like authority, social class, liberty, equality, justice, and democracy may be applied differently by various schools of thought.
• Political philosophy works to determine the precise meaning of these terms that should be acceptable to different ideologies.
• Agreement on term meanings doesn’t mean agreement on viewpoints, but it facilitates dialogue.
• For example, if a liberal and a socialist agree on the meaning of ‘freedom’ or ‘equality’, they are likely to understand each other better.
• Without precise definitions, terms can be used cleverly to conceal weak points in arguments.
• Selfish leaders and demagogues may manipulate terms to create emotional appeals and evade reason, while autocratsmay use them to legitimize oppressive regimes (e.g., Mussolini in Italy).
• A precise and widely accepted definition enables thinkers to build their arguments on solid ground.
• Just as an innovative mechanic doesn’t need to invent a new wheel to assemble a new machine, a new thinker doesn’t need to create new terminology to present their point of view.

ENCOURAGEMENT TO MUTUAL RESPECT AND TOLERATION

• The tradition of political theory encourages a dignified debate between upholders of different viewpoints.
• Most political philosophers from ancient times to the present have focused on common problems, providing new insights.
• Andrew Hacker (1961) observed that political theory is a never-ending conversation among theorists.
• The greatest debates may never be resolved, but criticisms between writers are always vivid and illuminating.
• Politics is considered the most democratic of sciences.
• Final judgements on political reality and the good life are the responsibility of all who engage in the study of theory.
• Following the tradition of political philosophers inspires us to understand each other’s viewpoints.
• It helps us identify the strengths and weaknesses of our own thoughts, convincing others and being convinced when truth is discovered.
• Political theory fosters mutual respect, toleration, and encourages the peaceful resolution of differences.

CONCLUSION

• Political theory consists of political science and political philosophy, performing three key functions: Description, Criticism, and Reconstruction.
• Political science mainly relies on the empirical method, using practical experience as the most reliable source, focusing on description.
• Political philosophy is concerned with value-judgement, specializing in criticism and reconstruction.
• Advocates of positivism, neo-positivism (logical positivism), and behaviouralism argue that political theory should be confined to political science.
• They believe evaluative statements are based on individual or group preferences, which differ widely, and there’s no reliable method for determining right or wrong, good or evil.
• These advocates assert that value-judgements should be excluded from political theory, as they cannot be scientifically discovered.
• However, with the advent of post-behaviouralism (1969) and the revival of political philosophy in the 1970s and 1980s, there has been renewed emphasis on values in political theory.
• Value-judgement is now seen as an essential guide to social policy, and indifference to it leaves society in the dark.
• Emerging concerns such as environmentalism, feminism, human rights, and social justice for subaltern groups require exploring new horizons of value-judgement.
• If political theory abandons this function, it may be taken over by less competent forces.
• David Held (1991) highlighted the demanding nature of political theory and the risk of leaving politics to the ignorant, self-interested, or those with a will to power.
• The functions of political theory are now crucial in addressing global problems that are recognized as humanity’s problems.

DEBATE ON THE DECLINE OF POLITICAL THEORY

• Political theory aims for systematic knowledge about the goals and methods of politics, with a long tradition spanning over two-and-a-half millenniums.
• In the mid-20th century, proponents of new political science began questioning the relevance of traditional political theory.
• David Easton (1953) argued in his book Political System that traditional political theory was based on mere speculation and lacked acute observation of political reality.
• Easton believed political theory needed to be rescued from classics and history of political ideas to lay scientific foundations for the study of politics.
• He argued traditional political theory arose in periods of social and political upheaval (e.g., Greece in pre-Plato days, Italy in the 15th century, England in the 16th and 17th centuries, and France in the 18th century), and had no relevance in contemporary society.
• Easton stated there had been no significant political philosopher after Marx and J.S. Mill, questioning the value of relying on century-old ideas.
• While economists and sociologists developed systematic studies of human behavior, political scientists lagged behind, lacking the research tools to account for fascism or communism.
• During World War II, economists, sociologists, and psychologists played an active role in decision-making, while political scientists were ignored.
• Easton advocated for a behavioural political science, closer to other social sciences, to be involved in decision-making.
• He argued values should not be a focus in modern political science, as values represent individual or group preferences shaped by social conditions.
• Political scientists should focus on building causal theory to explain political behavior, not the evolution of societal values.
• Causal theory explains the relationship between cause and effect, inquiring into what causes events and anticipating outcomes of specific causes.
• However, Easton revised his view in 1969, launching the ‘post-behavioural revolution’, aiming to convert political science from a ‘pure science’ to ‘applied science’ to address contemporary societal crises.
• Post-behaviouralism reintroduced a renewed concern for values within political science.
• Alfred Cobban (1953) argued political theory had lost its significance in both capitalist and communist systems, as both systems lacked significant political theorists for democracy.
• In capitalist systems, political theory had little role in sustaining the system due to the dominance of bureaucracy and the military.
• In communist systems, political theory had taken a backseat due to the rule of a small oligarchy and the unique form of party organization.
• Cobban believed political theory could not rely on the narrow focus of thinkers like Hegel and Marx, as contemporary politics operated on too large a scale for such limited theories.
• Logical positivists, who focused solely on facts and excluded values, contributed to the decline of political theory.
• Cobban concluded that political science must evolve criteria of judgement to revive the relevance of political philosophy.
• Seymour Martin Lipset (1960) argued in Political Man that in the United States, the search for the “good society” had ended, as their current democracy was the closest approximation to it, questioning the need for political theory.
• Proponents of the behavioural approach sought to strengthen the scientific basis of political study and separate it from political philosophy.
• Leo Strauss (1957) argued that the new science of politics signified the decline of political theory, as it ignored normative issues and treated all social values equally.
• Strauss criticized the positivist approach for erasing distinctions between high and low values, leading to a loss of identity between men and brutes.
• Dante Germino in Beyond Ideology: The Revival of Political Theory (1967) argued that the decline of political theory in the 19th and early 20th centuries was caused by:
  • (a) The rise of positivism, leading to the craze for science.
  • (b) The prevalence of political ideologies, culminating in Marxism.
• Political theory saw a revival, particularly in the thought of Michael Oakeshott, Hannah Arendt, Bertrand de Jouvenel, Leo Strauss, and Eric Voegelin.
• In a subsequent paper, Germino expanded the list of political thinkers contributing to the revival of political philosophy, including John Rawls, C.B. Macpherson, Christian Bay, Robert Nozick, Herbert Marcuse, Jürgen Habermas, Alasdair MacIntyre, and Michael Walzer.
• Germino emphasized that to understand the new role of political theory, it must be identified with political philosophy, which is:
  • A critical study of the principles of right order in human social existence.
  • Involves inquiry into right and wrong.
  • Not reducible to behavioural science or ideology.
  • Comprehends both the knowledge of facts and the insight to understand those facts.
• Political philosophy deals with perennial problems in social existence and cannot remain neutral to political struggle.
• Behavioural political science focuses on facts and remains neutral to values, while political philosophy must critique social situations.
• Germino argued that the divide between traditionalist and behaviouralist components of political theory was so wide that they cannot be reunited, and theories detached from political philosophy will be irrelevant.
• Germino lamented that behavioural political theory often uncritically supported the status quo rather than challenging it, performing the Socratic function of ‘speaking truth to power’.
• Herbert Marcuse (1968) criticized the attempt to conform the language of social science to natural science, warning that this approach often supports the status quo.
• Scientific language, when reduced to observable and measurable phenomena, leaves no room for a critical vision.
• Marcuse argued that when participation is measured by voter turnout, the ethical validity of the electoral system is not questioned, turning social science into an instrument of social control.
• Since the 1970s, the dispute between political science and political philosophy has subsided.
• David Easton’s post-behavioural approach reintroduced concern for values, while proponents of political philosophy now test their assumptions with empirical methods.
• Karl Popper (1945) had earlier recommended certain social values while advocating the scientific method.
• John Rawls (1971) in A Theory of Justice adopted empirical methods to derive his principles of justice.
• C.B. Macpherson (1973) critiqued Joseph Schumpeter and Robert Dahl’s empirical theory of democracy, advancing his own radical theory of democracy.
• Herbert Marcuse and Jürgen Habermas used empirical insight to critically analyze contemporary capitalism.
• It is now recognized that political science strengthens our means, but we must resort to political philosophy to determine our ends.
• Means and ends are interdependent, and political science and political philosophy play complementary roles in social life.