Introduction

• The Medieval Period of Indian History spans from the 6th century (after the fall of the Gupta Empire) to the 18th century (beginning of colonial domination).

• Historians divide the period into Early Medieval Period (fall of Gupta Empire to beginning of Sultanate period in the 13th century) and Late Medieval Period (Sultanate and Mughal reigns).

• The early medieval period is marked by regional and local powers with no paramount power, often referred to as “regional imperial kingdoms.”

• In contrast, the late medieval period (Sultanate and Mughal) saw a high level of centralization of power in large parts of the subcontinent.

• Nationalist historiography viewed the entire medieval period as a continuation of ancient empires, focusing on centralized power and negating changes in state structure.

• Marxist historiography emphasized decentralized, fragmented policies, identifying the institution of land-grants as key to bringing parcellised sovereignty, and equating the early medieval period with a feudal polity.

• The feudal model is criticized for relying primarily on Puranic and Epigraphic data of North India.

• An alternative approach, the Segmentary State model, is based on South Indian inscriptions, critiquing the feudal model.

• Both models highlight fragmented political authority and argue for political crisis and ritual sovereignty.

• Both the feudal polity and segmentary state models have been critiqued by ‘non-aligned’ historians.

• These historians emphasize the distinct element of ‘integrative polity’, which facilitated the emergence of state societies at both local and supra-local levels.

• According to them, the emergence of these state societies was the result of internal developments at the local level, rather than due to any external stimulus.

Important Ruling Families

• The Indian medieval period began after the end of the ancient age in 550 AD and continued until the 18th century, when the Mughal Empire had broken down.

• During this period, various dynasties rose in power and took commanding roles in Indian history.

• India was divided into various small kingdoms across the north, south, east, and west, each ruled by different independent kings.

• Dominant dynasties included:

  • Cholas (3rd century to 13th century) in southern India.

  • Mughuls (1526 AD to 1707 AD) in northern India.

  • Rajputs in western India (Rajasthan).

  • Pala dynasty in eastern India.

  • Chalukyas, Pallavas, and Delhi Sultans in their respective regions.

• These dynasties engaged in bloody battles for various reasons.

Chola Dynasty

• The Chola Dynasty was one of the longest ruling powers in south India, lasting from the 2nd century BC to the 13th century.

• They initially rose to power in the state of Tamil during ancient Indian history and maintained control until the 13th century.

• Sangam literature provides evidence of the Cholas, mentioning the names of kings and princes up to 300 BC.

• Two types of Cholas existed: Karikala Cholas and Kocengannan Cholas.

• They ruled from two capital cities: Urayur (now in Thiruchirapalli) and Kaveripattinam.

• A Chola king was known as Elara.

• After the Sangam age (after 300 BC), the Cholas were defeated by the Pandyas and Pallavas, who took control of the Tamil country.

• The Kalabhras, an unknown dynasty, attacked the region and displaced the existing empires, ruling for around three centuries.

• In the 6th century, the Pallavas and Pandyas regained control of the region.

• The Cholas remained largely unknown until Vijayalaya rose to power in 850 AD, rescuing the Chola Dynasty from the Pandyas and Pallavas.

• Vijayalaya captured the capital city of Thanjavur and established the line of the medieval Cholas.

• After the 9th century, the Cholas became the strongest dynasty in southern India, controlling a vast region across southern India and surrounding states.

• Under Rajaraja Chola I and Rajendra Chola I, the Chola Empire became powerful in the fields of army, finance, and culture, influencing South Asia and Southeast Asia.

• The Pandyas rose to power and expelled the Hoysala Dynasty, partners of the Cholas in the Tamil country, contributing to the end of the Chola dynasty in 1279 AD.

The Chalukya Dynasties

• The Chalukya Dynasties ruled in Indian medieval history from 600 to 1200 AD in the state of Deccan.

• They ruled from multiple capital cities:

  • The Western Chalukyas ruled from Badami.

  • The Later Western Chalukyas ruled from Kalyani.

  • The Eastern Chalukyas ruled from Vengi.

• The Western or Early Chalukya Dynasty was founded by Pulakesin I, who established the dynasty at Badami (now in Bijapur).

• Pulakesin II, son of Pulakesin I, ruled from 609 AD to 642 AD.

• The capital of Badami was destroyed by the Pallava Dynasty in the 7th century.

• The Eastern Chalukya Dynasties ruled from Vengi (now in East Andhra Pradesh) from 624 AD to the 11th century.

• The Western Chalukyas lasted until the 7th century from Badami.

• In 973 AD, the Western Chalukyas regained Badami, reestablished their dynasty in the Deccan, and created a new capital at Kalyani.

• The Western Chalukya Dynasty stayed in power until 1189 AD.

Pallava Dynasty

• Pallavas were a powerful dynasty in Andhra Pradesh during the end of 500 AD in Indian medieval history.

• The Pallavas initially ruled from Pallavapuri but later moved their capital to Kanchipuram to establish a stronger empire.

• The founder of the Pallava dynasty was Simha Vishnu, who expanded the kingdom to Northern Orissa, Tanjore, and Trichirapalli.

• After Simha Vishnu’s death, his son Mahendravarman succeeded him and was known for his cultural contributions.

• Mahendravarman established the famous cave temple at Mahabalipuram.

• In 620 AD, Mahendravarman was defeated by Chalukya king Pulakesin II at the battle of Pullalur.

• Mahendravarman died in 630 AD.

• He was succeeded by his son Narasimhavarman in 630 AD.

• Narasimhavarman sought revenge for the defeat of his father, and in 632 AD, he defeated Pulakesin II in the battles of Manimangalam and Pariyalam.

• Narasimhavarman burnt the capital city of Pulakesi II and completed the cave temples of Mahabalipuram.

• Although the dynasty was not at its peak under Narasimhavarman, the successors managed to safeguard the kingdom until the Cholas took over in the 9th century.

Pala Dynasty

• After the death of the great king Shashanka, north India became unstable.

• In 750 AD, King Gopala established the Pala Dynasty and revived the state of north India, Bihar, and West Bengal.

• The reign of the Pala Dynasty lasted from 800 AD to 1200 AD.

• King Gopala died in 770 AD and was succeeded by his son Dharmapala, who ruled from 770 AD to 781 AD.

• Dharmapala established a powerful capital at Kanauj but faced attacks from the Pratiharas of middle India and the Rashtrakutas of the Deccan.

• During the reign of Devapala from 810 AD to 850 AD, the Pala dynasty regained strength against the Pratiharas and Rashtrakutas.

• After Devapala, many successors rose to power but were less remarkable in Indian history.

• During the Pala reign, Mahayana Buddhism flourished and Buddhist temples and universities such as Nalanda and Vikramashila were established.

• The great Buddhist monk Atisha (981 AD to 1054 AD) contributed to the development of Buddhism in Tibet and served as the president of the Vikramashila monastery.

• By the mid-12th century, the Pala Empire was destroyed.

The Rajputs

• The Rajput period was an era of chivalry and feudalism.

• The Rajputs weakened each other through constant fighting, which allowed foreigners (Turks) to embark on victorious campaigns using duplicity and deceit.

• The term Rajput or Rajputra is a regional word from Rajasthan, meaning Son of King.

• Rajputs were descendants of the Kshatriyas or warriors of Vedic India.

• There were three major types of Rajput descent in medieval Indian history:

  • Suryavanshi: Descended from Lord Rama.

  • Chandravanshi: Descended from Hindu god Krishna.

  • Agnikula or ‘fire sprung’: Tribes descended from gods in the anali kund or ‘fountain of fire’ on Mount Abu.

• Rajasthan had 21 small kingdoms, with different Rajput clans ruling over them.

• Among the major Rajput clans:

  • The Sisodias ruled Mewar (now in Udaipur).

  • The Kachwahas ruled Amber (now in Jaipur).

  • The Rathors ruled Marwar (now in Jodhpur and Bikaner).

  • The Hadas ruled Jhalawar.

  • The Bhattis ruled Jaisalmer.

  • The Shekhawats ruled Shekhawati.

  • The Chauhans ruled Ajmer.

Vijaynagar

• Vijaynagar Empire was established by two brothers Harihara and Bukka in the middle of 13th century.

• The empire lasted for three centuries and successfully prevented the influence of Muslim sultanates in southern India.

• The history of the empire was marked by continuous bloody battles with Bahamani and other Muslim sultanates.

• Krishnadevaraya was regarded as the best ruler of the Vijaynagar Empire and was always unbeaten in wars throughout his reign.

• Krishnadevaraya treated defeated enemies as friends and had a fair approach towards diplomacy.

• He defeated the Muslim power in southern India and organized an excellent administration system.

• Krishnadevaraya maintained a good relationship with the Portuguese and granted concessions to Governor Albuquerque.

• The ruins of the Vijaynagar city can be seen today near Hampi in Karnataka.

• The Battle of Talikota was one of the most crucial battles in Indian history, leading to the downfall of Hindu dominance in southern India until the rise of the Marathas in the 17th century.

Delhi Sultanate

• The Delhi Sultanates were in power from 1210 AD to 1526 AD.

• The Delhi Sultanate was founded after Muhammad Ghori defeated Prithviraj (Rajput king) in the Battle of 2nd Tarain in 1192 AD.

• After Ghori’s death in 1206 AD, Qutb ud-Din became the Sultan of Delhi and founded the Slave dynasty, which lasted until 1290 AD.

• The Delhi Sultanate witnessed the rise and fall of five dynasties:

  • Slave dynasty (1206 AD to 1290 AD)

  • Khalji dynasty (1290 AD to 1320 AD)

  • Tughluq dynasty (1320 AD to 1413 AD)

  • Sayyid dynasty (1414 AD to 1451 AD)

  • Lodi dynasty (1451 AD to 1526 AD)

• Under the Khalji dynasty, Ala Ud-din Khalji brought Muslim power to its peak, which continued until the rise of the Mughal Empire.

• Muhammad Bin Tughluq, founder of the Tughluq dynasty, was a significant ruler in Indian medieval history.

• After Muhammad Bin Tughluq’s reign, his successors led to the disintegration of the Delhi kingdom into numerous small states.

The Mughals

• Babur (reign: 1526 to 1530 AD) was the founder of the Mughal Empire in India and a descendant of Changez Khan.

• Babur was ousted by his cousins and came to India, where he defeated Ibrahim, the last Lodi Sultan, in the First Battle of Panipat in 1526 AD.

• There was a brief interruption to Mughal rule when Babur’s son, Humayun (reign: 1530 to 1540 AD), was ousted from Delhi by Sher Shah, an Afghan chieftain.

• Akbar (reign: 1556 to 1605 AD), Babur’s grandson, consolidated political power and extended the Mughal Empire over most of north India and parts of the south.

• Jahangir (reign: 1605 to 1627 AD), who succeeded Akbar, was a pleasure-loving man with refined tastes.

• Shah Jahan (reign: 1628 to 1658 AD), Jahangir’s son, ascended the throne next and is known for his construction of majestic buildings, including the Taj Mahal, the Red Fort, and the Jama Masjid.

• Aurangzeb (reign: 1658 to 1707 AD) was the last great Mughal ruler.

The Marathas

• The Marathas rose in power after the demise of Muslim power in India.

• Initially, the Marathas served the Bijapur sultans in the western Deccan, which was under siege by the Mughal Empire.

• The founder of Maratha dominance, Shivaji Bhonsle (1627 AD to 1680 AD), is known as the “father of the Maratha nation.”

• Shivaji captured two forts and took control of Pune in 1647 AD.

• He gradually captured forts in the regions of Purandar, Rajgad, and Torna.

• In 1659 AD, he killed the general of Adilshahi, Afzal Khan.

• Shivaji used guerrilla strategy to lead a series of successful attacks, including a major attack on the port of Surat in 1660 AD.

• In 1666, he was arrested by Aurangzeb’s general, Jai Singh, but escaped and regained his lost regions and glory.

• By 1673, Shivaji had expanded his domain across western Maharashtra and established the capital at Raigad.

• He built an efficient government and a strong army.

• The people of his nation called him Chhatrapati (meaning “one who provides shelter”).

• Shivaji died in 1680 AD.

• Sambhaji, Shivaji’s son, succeeded him but was arrested and killed by Aurangzeb in 1689 AD.

• Rajaram, Shivaji’s second son, then took the throne but died in 1700 AD.

• The widow of Rajaram placed her ten-year-old son, Shahu, on the Maratha throne.

• Shahu continued the fight against Aurangzeb and captured Rajgad, the earlier capital of the Marathas.

• The struggle against the Mughal Empire ended with the death of Aurangzeb in 1707 AD.

The Chakravartin Concept

• A chakravartin stands in the center of the panel with hands raised in anjali mudra (gesture of worship).

• On either side of the chakravartin are two attendants, three women, and a man, all clad in diaphanous dhotis, holding chowries (fly whisks) in their raised right hands.

• The concept of a chakravartin is ancient in India, denoting a universal monarch whose realm and influence spread extensively, symbolized by the chakra (wheel).

• Representing a chakravartin included attendant figures like parasol carriers or fly-whisk bearers, which are present in this relief.

• Sometimes, a chakravartin is also depicted with a chakra.

• The idea of a chakravartin was artistically significant and served as a model to represent the gods, including early images of the Buddha with similar features.

• Early texts referred to the Buddha as a chakravartin, whose spiritual realm spread universally.

• The relief includes an inscription in Brahmi script on a broad tablet, referring to both the maker and donor of the piece.

• Chakravartin literally means “wheel turner” or “a wheel that travels everywhere without obstruction”, symbolizing both secular and religious authority.

• The turning of the wheel represents change, movement, conquest, and the formation of a new ethical and moral order.

• In Buddhism, the turning of the wheel of dharma symbolizes the delivery of the Buddha’s teachings.

• The concept of chakravartin arose from the Vaishnavite ideal of the “maha purusha” or “great man”, destined to become a world leader, with only one chakravartin at a time.

• The birth of a chakravartin heralds the onset of seven wealths: faith, morality, honesty, modesty, learning, renunciation, and wisdom.

• At the time of birth, seven precious jewels also appear: the precious wheel, jewel, queen, minister, elephant, horse, and general.

• These seven possessions are the property of the chakravartin and karmically form his “mandala”.

• The wheel and jewel symbolize his temporal and spiritual majesty, while the horse and elephant represent his speed and strength.

• The queen, minister, and general represent his love, wisdom, and power, with their fidelity being his blessing.

• An auxiliary set of seven jewels accompanies the chakravartin’s rule: sword, naga skin, throne, robes, boots, palace, and palace gardens.

• These secondary jewels represent the material inheritance or attributes of the chakravartin.

• A third group of seven auspicious royal jewels include: rhinoceros horn, square earrings of the minister, precious coral branch, round earrings of the queen, insignia of the general, elephant tusks, and a triple-eyed gem in a trefoil gold mount.

• These seven insignia symbolize the horse, minister, wheel, queen, general, elephant, and jewel.

• The chakravartin is a righteous universal monarch who rules through compassion and wisdom.

• The divine human form achieves perfection through the non-dual identification of the chakravartin and bodhisattva ideals.

Salient Features of Administration

Bureaucracy

• After the decline of the Gupta polity, there was decentralized political fragmentation and the rise of various regional states.

• The state was seen as a bureaucratic polity suspended above society, with its most important activities being revenue collection and warfare.

• The government focused little on the welfare of the people; the activities of the King’s court, composed of dependents, retainers, underlords, and vassals, were central to the functioning of the state.

• Political stability and administrative practices relied heavily on feudatories.

• The King maintained a small personal army, but in times of need, feudatories provided the necessary troops.

• The King granted tax-free land to officials through royal proclamations.

• The King was assisted by ministers and officials in day-to-day administration, usually selected from noble families, with some positions becoming hereditary.

• The central administrative system was divided into departments such as external affairs, revenue, treasury, army, justice, and religious matters, with separate ministers for each.

• The Prime Minister was the chief among ministers, and all ministers, except the priest in charge of religious affairs, were required to lead armies in battle.

• Officials were appointed to manage the domestic affairs of the king.

• The Madhuban Copper Plates of the 7th century mention officials like Uparika (provincial governors), Senapati (army chief), and Dutaka (informer).

• The armed forces played a crucial role in maintaining internal security and expansion.

• Huen-Tsang, the Chinese Buddhist pilgrim, described the luxurious lifestyles of high officials, priests, army chiefs, and nobles during the 7th century.

• Territories directly ruled by the king were administratively divided into bhuktis, mandalas, or vishayas.

• Officials in charge of bhuktis were called Uparika, and those in charge of mandalas or vishayas were called Mandalpatis or Vishayapatis.

• The main duties of these officials were to collect taxes and maintain law and order in their respective areas.

• Administrative charge of a group of villages was sometimes given to an officer called Bhogapati.

• The village headman was the smallest administrative unit in the kingdom and was responsible for law and order, as well as collecting taxes and remitting them to the royal treasury.

• The grama-mahajana or village council assisted the village headman in managing village affairs, including educational institutions, water supply, temples, and pathways.

• Separate committees were formed in urban centers for their administration, often with the assistance of guilds.

• Apart from the directly ruled territories, the feudatories or vassals governed their own territories with great independence.

• Vassals were required to offer gifts, tribute, and armies to the king, whose domination was acknowledged by them.

• Vassals sometimes married daughters to the king to strengthen their relationship.

• Kings had to fight against their powerful feudatories when the latter challenged the king’s supremacy.

Revenue System

• Land revenue was the primary source of income for the state during this period.

• A regular revenue department functioned to properly survey and measure land and collect land revenue.

• The land tax collected from peasants typically ranged from 1/6 to 1/4 of the total produce.

• Villages were responsible for providing food and shelter to the army when it marched through their areas.

• The rulers imposed forced labor, known as ‘vishti’, upon peasants, requiring them to work on the ruler’s fields for no wages.

• In the post-Gupta period, the status of Shudras shifted from being servants and domestic slaves to becoming peasants.

• Huen-Tsang described Shudras as agriculturists in his accounts.

• The widespread land-grant system created a separate group of landlords in rural areas during the post-Gupta period.

• From the 7th century onward, land grants included pastures, trees, water resources, in addition to agricultural land.

• Landlords collected both regular and irregular taxes from peasants, with taxes such as bhaga, bhoga, etc.

• Peasants were obligated to pay all taxes imposed on them, and landlords had the right to evict peasants and replace them with new ones at will.

• The collection of irregular taxes strengthened the position of landlords while deteriorating the position of peasants.

• Vishti or forced labor became a common practice in north India during the 8th and 9th centuries.

• Several land grants from this period ordered peasants to obey the landlords’ orders.

• Although agrarian expansion was positive, the condition of the peasantry continued to worsen.

• Special revenue officials known as ‘desa-grama-kutas’ are mentioned in texts from this period.

• The growth of desa-grama-kutas in northern India diminished the power of village committees.

• Over time, these desa-grama-kutas became more powerful and acted as feudal lords in rural areas.

War Technology

• Early medieval Indian war technology continued from earlier stages with changes in water technology after the advent of Turks and Afghans in the 11th century.

• Military operations centered around elephants, cavalry, and infantry.

• War elephants were used in India for the first time in recorded history and were later taken to the Persian empire.

• Although cavalry and infantry played significant roles, elephants occupied the lead role in warfare.

• A major technological change occurred with the widespread use of made arrows and other weapons.

• Chanakya had already outlined various techniques and strategies related to war.

• Improvements in war technology in the medieval period were marked by the use of better weapons and the construction of formidable forts.

• Weapons were mostly hand-operated.

• Elephants and horses were crucial in defense, along with infantry soldiers and chariots.

• Horse-drawn chariots played an important role in warfare.

• Forts were critical in warfare; many were surrounded by moats, sometimes filled with crocodiles.

• Hills with large areas of land were preferred for fort construction, allowing for food cultivation and the building of granaries for food preservation during sieges.

• Methods of attacking from forts included showering spears from ramparts and pouring hot oil when enemies entered the gates.

• Wooden gates of forts were reinforced with metallic spears and nails, and elephants were used to break open gates, often with ramming rods or battering rams.

• Sieges often ended when the fort’s food supply was exhausted.

• In the medieval period, horses of better breed were imported from Central Asia at high prices.

• Arab traders were present in Indian regional kingdoms, and kings employed Abyssinian slaves as security guards in palaces and harems.

• South African soldiers were also employed to impart military training and guard important palaces.

• By the 8th century, Indian society was divided into warriors and non-warriors.

• The Indian army was not fully professionalized, and coordination between commanders and troops was not always efficient.

• Turko-Afghan attacks of the medieval period challenged Indian war technology, with light cavalry and heavy cavalry used against Rajput armies dominated by elephants.

• The light cavalry of the Afghans and Turks, equipped with mounted archers and crossbows, had significant advantages over the Rajput forces.

• Horse-shoes gave the cavalry of Afghans and Turks an edge over the unshoed cavalry of the Rajputs.

• Field entrenchment was a characteristic feature of Turko-Afghan battle techniques, with elaborate trenches built for artillery batteries.

• Artillery and infantry were sheltered behind trenches before the battle began.

• Cavalry charges ultimately decided the battle, with firearms playing a subordinate role.

• Battles typically began with the firing of cannons, which lasted for two or three hours before cavalry took the lead.

State under Delhi Sultanate

• Rulers of Delhi Sultanate ruled over North India between 1206-1526, with Delhi being the center of power and authority.

• Qutub-ud-din Aibak (1206-1210) was the first ruler of the Delhi Sultanate and the founder of the slave dynasty.

• Aibak was succeeded by Iltumish (1210-1236), the greatest ruler of the slave dynasty, who established an independent state, capital, and a monarchial form of governance.

• After Iltumish, Sultana Raziya (1236-1240), the only female ruler of the Sultanate, ascended the throne but faced opposition due to her gender.

• After Raziya’s death, the Turkish nobles placed Bahram (1240-1242) and Masud Shah (1242-1246) on the throne, leading to factional struggles.

• Giyasuddin Balban rose to power, captured the throne, and is considered one of the greatest slave kings, saving the Sultanate from extinction and checking the power of nobles and Mongol invasions.

• Balban was the first ruler of the Delhi Sultanate to expound clear views about kingship, raising the prestige of the crown and enforcing commands rigorously.

• The slave dynasty ended in 1290 with Balban’s death, and the Khilji dynasty was established, marking the second phase of the Delhi Sultanate.

• The Khilji revolution brought significant changes, with Alauddin Kilji expanding the Sultanate and attempting to end corruption in administration, sending expeditions south and accumulating wealth.

• Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq founded the Tughlaq dynasty (1316-1413), succeeded by Muhammad bin Tughlaq (1325-1391), known for protecting the Sultanate’s frontiers from Mongol invasions.

• Firoz Shah Tughlaq succeeded Muhammad bin Tughlaq, and after his death, the Tughlaq dynasty ended, giving way to the Sayyid and Lodi dynasties.

• In 1526, the Lodi dynasty was overthrown by Babar, establishing the Mughal Empire.

• The Delhi Sultanate introduced a new ruling class in India, and initially, the administrative apparatus from the previous rulers continued under Qutub-ud-din Aibak.

• The existing administrative structures were not altered, and local rulers recognized the supremacy of the Sultan in Delhi, collecting taxes and sending them as tribute to the central treasury.

• With the expansion of the Delhi Sultanate, new administrative institutions emerged, influenced by Mongols, Seljukids, and local practices.

• The Sultans ruled over a largely non-Islamic population and introduced measures suited to the prevailing conditions in the Sultanate.

• At the local level, administration was left in the hands of village headmen, while the large extent of the Sultanate necessitated a separate administrative structure for the centre and provinces.

• During the Sultanate period, administrative institutions emerged at central, provincial, and local levels.

Administrative System

• The state set up by the Turks in North India gradually developed into a powerful and highly centralized state, controlling almost the entire country, extending as far as Madurai.

• The administrative system of the Sultans had a powerful influence on Mughal administration which developed in the 16th century.

• Although many Turkish sultans in India declared themselves as lieutenants of the faithful, i.e., the Abbasid Caliph at Baghdad, it did not mean the Caliph was the legal ruler. The Caliph had only a moral position.

• By proclaiming their supreme position, the Sultans of Delhi were asserting their part in the Islamic world, but their power was not derived from the Caliph.

• The Sultan of Delhi declared the state as an Islamic State, and the head of state was seen as both a political and religious leader, deriving authority from God.

• The Sultanate of Delhi was an Islamic state, with monarchs, the nobility, and the higher administrative hierarchy being primarily Muslim.

• Theoretically, the sultans were expected to enforce Islamic law and professed nominal allegiance to the Caliph, with the exception of Alauddin Kilji and Mubarak Shah Kilji, who did not style themselves as deputies of the Caliph.

• In practice, however, the sultans were sovereign rulers who did not depend on any external power (neither the Caliph nor the Millat) for their authority.

• Due to the Turks being fewer in number than the indigenous population, they had to supplement Islamic law with secular regulations.

• Scholars have differing views on the nature of the state during the Sultanate period. Some, like Ishwari Prasa and R.P. Tripathi, view it as a theocracy, while others, like Dr. I.H. Qureshi and Muhammad Habib, deny its theocratic nature.

• The contemporary historian Zainuddin Barani differentiated between religious and secular states, stating that some secular features were essential due to the situation in India.

• The traditional Islamic theory of state influenced the sultans, but their political institutions did not always align with orthodox Islamic principles, incorporating elements of Rajput polity with or without modification.

• Some practices and policies of the Sultanate were opposed to the spirit of traditional Islamic law.

• The real strength or weakness of the Sultanate depended on the personality and character of the sultan.

• The government was based on highly centralized despotic principles.

• Some sultans formally introduced Islamic law within their dominion, and the word of the Sultan was treated as law.

• Alauddin Kilji, backed by a strong army, defied Islamic principles of government and made the ulema (Islamic scholars) subservient to him, declaring himself as the state.

• The founders of the Sultanate of Delhi did not belong to any ruling house or families of high social status; they started their careers as slaves, not as free citizens.

• They did not claim any notable pedigree or hereditary right to the throne. There was no fixed law of succession to the throne; it depended on survival of the fittest and “might is right.”

• The Sultanate of Delhi was a military state, with its strength or weakness depending exclusively on the military power and personality of the Sultan.

• During the Sultanate period, the administrative apparatus was headed by the Sultan, who was assisted by various nobles.

• There was theoretically a council of Ministers (Majlis-i-Khalwat) to assist the Sultan in administrative tasks.

• The Sultan was the central figure in the administrative setup. He was the head of civil administration and Supreme Commander of the army.

• The Sultan made all appointments and promotions and had the right to remove anyone from service. He had absolute power in his hands.

• The Sultan was also the head of the judiciary and conferred titles and honours upon people.

• Theoretically, the Sultan held an exalted position, but in practice, different sultans enjoyed varying degrees of power.

• The Sultan’s position was always under pressure from the powerful nobility and Ulema.

• Powerful sultans adopted various strategies to keep the nobility and Ulema under control. For example, Balban kept the nobles firmly under his control.

• The personality of the Sultan played a significant role in the administrative structure of the Sultanate.

• Under capable and strong sultans, the administration functioned well, but under inefficient and weaker rulers, the administration was under pressure.

Central Administration

• The administrative system was headed by the Sultan, who oversaw various departments.

• These departments were managed by influential nobles, each assigned different responsibilities.

• The Sultan’s administration was structured through these departments, with the nobles playing a key role in managing them.

Wizarat

• After the Sultan, the most important office was the Diwan-i-Wizarat, headed by the wazir.

• The wazir was the chief advisor to the Sultan and supervised all departments.

• The main functions of the wazir included overseeing the financial organization of the state, advising the Sultan, and sometimes leading military expeditions.

• The wazir also supervised payment to the army, monitored land revenue collections, maintained records of income and expenditure, and handled salaries of royal servants.

• Additionally, the wazir managed charitable donations like Waqfs and Inams, as well as the mints, intelligence departments, and royal buildings.

• The wazir had direct access to the Sultan, and the Sultan’s position relied heavily on the wazir’s wisdom, sincerity, and loyalty.

• Several other departments worked under the wizarat, including:

  • Mustaufi-i-Mumalik (Auditor General)

  • Mushrif-i-Mumalik (Accountant General)

  • Majmuadar (Keeper of loans and balances from treasury)

• Later, other offices were brought under the wizarat, such as:

  • Diwan-i-Waqoof (Supervised expenditure)

  • Diwan-i-Mustakharaj (Looked into arrears of revenue payments)

  • Diwan-i-Amir Kohi (Focused on bringing uncultivated land into cultivation with state support).

Diwan-i-Arz

• The department responsible for the military organization of the empire was headed by Ariz-i-Mumalik.

• Ariz-i-Mumalik was responsible for the administration of military affairs, including maintaining the royal contingent, recruiting soldiers, and ensuring discipline and fitness of the army.

• He also inspected the troops maintained by the Iqta-holders, examined and branded horses with the royal insignia.

• During times of war, the Ariz arranged military provisions, transportation, and administered the army, ensuring constant supplies and serving as the custodian of war booty.

• Alauddin Khalji introduced the system of Dagh (branding) and huliya (description) for soldiers, and also implemented cash payments to strengthen control over the army.

• The contingent stationed at Delhi was called hasham-i-qalb, and provincial contingents were referred to as hasham-i-atraf.

Diwan-i-Insha

• The department responsible for state correspondence was headed by Dabir-i-Khas.

• The Dabir-i-Khas drafted and dispatched royal orders and received reports from various officers, serving as the formal channel of communication between the center and other regions of the empire.

• He acted as a private secretary to the Sultan and was responsible for writing the Farmans (royal decrees).

• The Baridi-Mumalik was the head of the state news gathering and dealt with intelligence.

• The Baridi-Mumalik kept track of all happenings within the Sultanate, and at the local level, there were barids who sent regular news to the central office.

• Another set of reporters, known as Munihiyan, also existed to gather and report news.

Diwan-i-Rasalat

• The department responsible for administration of justice was headed by Sadr-us-Sadr, who was also the qazi-i-mumalik.

• Sadr-us-Sadr was the highest religious officer and took care of ecclesiastical affairs.

• He appointed the qazis (judges) and approved various charitable grants like waqf, wazifa, Idrar, etc.

• The Sultan was the highest court of appeal in both civil and criminal matters.

• Next to the Sultan in the judicial hierarchy was the Qazi-i-Mumalik.

• Muhtasibs (Public Censors) assisted the judicial department, overseeing that there was no public infringement of the tenets of Islam.

• Muhtasibs also supervised and enforced public morals and conduct.

Other Departments

• Apart from the main departments, there were several smaller departments that helped in the everyday administration of the empire.

• Wakil-i-Dar looked after the royal household and managed the personal services of the Sultan.

• Amir-i-Hajib oversaw royal ceremonies and acted as an intermediary between the Sultan and subordinate officials, as well as between the Sultan and the public.

• Sar-i-Jandar was responsible for the royal bodyguards.

• Amir-i-Akhur managed the establishment of horses.

• Shahnah-i-fil was in charge of the establishment of elephants.

• Amir-i-Majlis oversaw the arrangement of meetings and special ceremonies.

• The royal workshops (Karkhanas) played an important role in the administrative system, meeting the needs of the royal household.

• Karkhanas were of two types: Manufactories and Store Houses.

• Under Feroz Tughlaq, there were 36 Karkhanas.

• Each Karkhana was supervised by a noble with the rank of Malik or Khan.

• Mutasarrif was responsible for the accounts and acted as immediate supervisor in various departments.

Provincial Administration

• The administration in areas outside the core political region was carried out in various ways, depending on the degree of political control.

• Territorial expansion and consolidation of the Sultanate continued throughout the 13th and 14th centuries.

• Some newly conquered areas were brought directly under Sultanate control, while others remained semi-autonomous.

• Control mechanisms varied for these areas, with some loosely affiliated areas having officials appointed by the Centre as a symbol of imperial presence, but local administration remained in local hands.

• The Centre’s interest in these areas was primarily economic, focusing on revenue collection.

• Provinces were placed under the charge of Governors, responsible for overall administration, revenue collection, maintaining law and order, and controlling rebellious elements.

• Governors were deputies of the Sultan in their area and were dependent on local officials to perform duties due to frequent transfers.

• Local officials played a crucial role in revenue collection, with the governor and local power blocs working closely together.

• This relationship sometimes caused problems, as governors gained power with local help and rebelled against the Sultan.

• During the 14th century, provinces were divided into Shiqs for administrative convenience.

• Shiqs were administered by the Shiqdar, which later became Sarkars during the Afghan period.

• Faujdar was another officer at the provincial level, with overlapping duties with the Shiqdar.

• Shiqdar assisted the governor in maintaining law and order, provided military assistance, and supervised smaller administrative units.

• The duties of the Faujdar were similar to those of the Shiqdar, with Kotwals placed under the Faujdar.

• Other important officers at the provincial level included Barids (intelligence officers and reporters) and Sahib-i-Diwan (who maintained financial accounts of provincial income and expenditure).

Local Administration

• The village was the smallest unit of administration in the Sultanate.

• The functioning and administration of the village remained largely the same as it was in pre-Turkish times.

• The main village functionaries were Khut, Muqaddam, and Patwari, who worked in close coordination with the Muqti for revenue collection and maintaining law and order.

• A number of villages formed a Pargana, and the key officials in the Pargana were Chaudhary, Amil (revenue collector), and Karkun (accountant).

• Villages and Parganas were independent administrative units, but they were interconnected.

• In certain provinces, a local ruler (e.g., Rai, Rana, Rawat, or Raja) helped the Governor in their duties.

• These local rulers were recognized as subordinates of the Sultan.

Market Reforms of Alauddin Khilji

• Alauddin Khalji‘s market reforms were driven by administrative and military necessities.

• Medieval rulers believed necessities of life, especially food grains, should be available to the city folk at reasonable prices, but few had successfully controlled prices for long.

• Alauddin Khalji was the first ruler to systematically address price control, maintaining stable prices for a considerable period.

• His market reforms were linked to the Mongol siege of Delhi and the need to recruit a large army without exhausting resources.

• Administrative arrangements were made to ensure strict adherence to market controls.

• Alauddin fixed prices for all commodities, including grain, cloth, slaves, and cattle.

• He established three markets in Delhi: one for food grains, another for cloth and expensive items (sugar, ghee, oil, dry fruits), and the third for horses, slaves, and cattle.

• For food price control, Alauddin managed food grain supply from villages, transportation by merchants, and distribution to the citizens.

• Shehna was appointed as the officer in charge of the markets to enforce the royal orders.

• Barids (intelligence officers) and munhiyan (secret spies) were also deployed to monitor compliance.

• The government maintained sufficient food grain stocks to prevent traders from causing artificial scarcity or profiteering.

• Granaries were set up in Delhi and Chhain (Rajasthan) for stockpiling.

• Banjaras (food grain transporters) were organized into a group, settled by the Yamuna river, and overseen by a Shehna.

• Food grains were required to be sold in mandis at official prices.

• The second market, Sarai-i-adl, handled cloth, dry fruits, ghee, etc., and required merchants to sell only at government prices.

• Merchants were registered and committed to bringing specified quantities of goods annually.

• Merchants who brought goods from long distances or foreign countries were given advance money on the condition that they would sell directly to consumers, bypassing intermediaries.

• Permits were issued to amirs, maliks, and others to buy expensive commodities based on their income, preventing black marketing.

• The third market focused on horses, cattle, and slaves.

• Middlemen (dallals) were removed from the horse trade to ensure quality and fair prices.

• The government fixed the prices and quality of horses, as well as slave and cattle prices.

• These reforms, however, were short-lived and dissolved after Alauddin Khalji’s death.

Knowledge Systems

• The medieval period in India marked the arrival of Muslims and saw a shift in the educational pattern.

• Traditional indigenous classical learning had already experienced a setback.

• The educational system followed in Arab countries was gradually adopted, leading to the establishment of Maktabs and Madrasas.

• These institutions received royal patronage and operated under a set curriculum.

• Sheikh Abdullah and Sheikh Azizullah, specialists in rational sciences, headed madrasas at Sambal and Agra.

• Learned men from Arabia, Persia, and Central Asia were invited to lead education in madrasas.

• Efforts were made to reform the curriculum of primary schools, with the inclusion of subjects like Arithmetic, Mensuration, Geometry, Astronomy, Accountancy, Public Administration, and Agriculture.

• Despite the reforms, sciences did not make significant progress during this period.

• A synthesis was attempted between Indian traditional scientific culture and the prevailing medieval scientific approach in other countries.

• Karkhanas (large workshops) were established to supply provisions, stores, and equipment to the royal household and government departments.

• Karkhanas worked as manufacturing agencies and also as centers for technical and vocational training for young people.

• These karkhanas trained artisans and craftspersons in various trades, many of whom later established their own independent karkhanas.

Mathematics

• Several works in the field of Mathematics were produced during the period.

• Narayana Pandit, son of Narsimha Daivajna, was known for his works in Mathematics, including Ganitakaumudi and Bijaganitavatamsa.

• Gangadhara in Gujarat wrote Lilavati Karamdipika, Suddhantadipika, and Lilavati Vyakhya, famous treatises on trigonometry (sine, cosine, tangent, cotangent).

• Nilakantha Somasutvan produced Tantrasamgraha, which contained rules for trigonometric functions.

• Ganesa Daivajna produced Buddhivilasini, a commentary on Lilavati, containing numerous illustrations.

• Krishna of the Valhalla family wrote Navankura, an elaboration of Bijaganit by Bhaskara II, explaining the rules of indeterminate equations of the first and second orders.

• Nilakantha Jyotirvida compiled Tajik, introducing many Persian technical terms.

• Faizi, at the request of Akbar, translated Bhaskara’s Bijaganit.

• Akbar ordered Mathematics to be included as a subject of study in the education system.

• Naisiru’d-din al-Tusi was another prominent scholar in Mathematics.

Astronomy

• Astronomy flourished during this period with several commentaries on established astronomical notions.

• Mehendra Suri, a court astronomer of Emperor Firoz Shah, developed the astronomical instrument Yantraja.

• Paramesvara and Mahabhaskariya were famous families of astronomers and almanac-makers in Kerala.

• Nilakantha Somasutvan produced a commentary on Aryabhatiyaa.

• Kamalakar studied Islamic astronomical ideas and was an authority on Islamic knowledge.

• Maharaja Sawai Jai Singh II of Jaipur was a patron of Astronomy and set up five astronomical observatories in Delhi, Ujjain, Varanasi, Mathura, and Jaipur.

Medicine

• The Ayurveda system of medicine did not progress as vigorously during this period due to lack of royal patronage.

• Important treatises on Ayurveda include:

  • Sarangdhara Samhita and Chikitsasamgraha by Vangasena.

  • Yagaratbajara and Bhavaprakasa of Bhavamisra.

• Sarangdhara Samhita (13th century) includes:

  • Use of opium in its material medica.

  • Urine examination for diagnostic purposes.

  • Drugs including metallic preparations and imported drugs.

• The Rasachikitsa system focused on mineral medicines, both mercurial and non-mercurial.

• The Siddha system was prevalent in Tamil Nadu and attributed to reputed Siddhas, who developed life-prolonging compositions, often rich in mineral medicines.

• The Unani Tibb system of medicine flourished during the medieval period.

  • Ali-bin Rabban summarized Greek and Indian medicine in the book Firdausu-Hikmat.

  • Unani medicine came to India with the Muslims around the 11th century and received patronage.

  • Hakim Diya Muhammad compiled the book Majiny-e-Diyae, combining Arabic, Persian, and Ayurvedic knowledge.

  • Firoz Shah Tughlaq wrote Tibbe Firozshahi.

  • Tibbi Aurangzebi, dedicated to Aurangzeb, based on Ayurvedic sources.

  • Musalajati-Darshikohi of Nuruddin Muhammad, dedicated to Darashikoh, contains Greek medicine and much Ayurvedic material medica.