The 19th century history is full of attempts to realize the principles of nationality, liberty, and equality from the French Revolution of 1789.

Revolutions for independence erupted in Spain, Portugal, Italy, Germany, and the Balkan Peninsula but were crushed by reactionaries.

The unification of Italy and Germany became possible only after the fall of Metternich, who (1815-1848) used the Congress of Vienna to suppress nationalist movements.

Ultimately, nationalism was victorious.

Intellectual, social, economic, psychological, political, and diplomatic causes together prepared the ground for World War I (July 1914 – November 1918).

After the war ended, tensions remained in Europe:

• In Russia, anti-Bolshevik powers tried to form alternative governments.

• Nationalist movements in Ukraine and the Baltic regions sought independence.

• Allied forces blockaded Germany and Austria until June 1919.

• European states struggled with or feared revolutions; even Britain and France remained wary despite relative stability.

Revolts occurred in Germany, Austria, and Hungary.

A new Czechoslovak government was announced in Prague.

Cretes, Slavs, and Serbs united to form Yugoslavia.

Galician and Prussian Poles established a Polish republic.

These new states had yet to decide on their administrative setup and economic base.

Britain and France faced economic difficulties with rising worker discontent.

Germany was on the brink of revolt, threatening the old order with food shortages, epidemics, and growing anarchy.

The Treaty of Peace disappointed hopes for stability.

Seeing unrest, Ebert and Scheidemann took control and proclaimed Germany a republic.

Formation of the Communist Party in Italy (1919–1920) raised hopes, but by 1923 the socialist movement split and a strong counter-revolutionary movement emerged.

Within three years, Mussolini seized full power.

The French Revolution of 1789 deeply impacted not only France but all of Europe.

Monarchy was displaced by democracy, and people demanded the franchise.

European parties organized between 1792 and 1815 aimed to demolish liberty, equality, and fraternity and restore monarchy and the old order.

Rulers of Britain and Prussia, with help from Russia and Austria, sought to crush revolutionary spirit.

Despite repression, between 1820 and 1848, revolts and rebellions erupted all over Europe.

There were revolutions in France (1830 and 1848), Spain (1837), and Portugal (1834).

Struggles for independence continued in Italy, the Balkan Peninsula, and Greece.

Spain was influenced by the French Revolution, which inspired nationalism among Spaniards.

King Ferdinand VII tried to suppress revolutionary feelings.

In 1820, soldiers revolted at Cadiz; Ferdinand restored the 1812 constitution.

Parliamentary elections brought liberal leaders to power, but the king secretly planned to overthrow the government.

With support from Metternich and French troops, Ferdinand crushed the revolution in 1823, annulled the constitution, and restored absolute monarchy.

The French Revolution of 1830 again inspired Spanish uprisings, but they were suppressed by military courts.

By 1834, modern ideas increased in Parliament, and in 1837 a new constitution based on 1812 was implemented, establishing a constitutional monarchy.

The Council of Ministers became responsible to Parliament.

Spain lost some valuable colonies but retained influence over Central and South America (except Brazil and Guiana).

Colonial subjects were inspired by independence movements, while Britain thwarted Spanish interests for 50 years.

In Portugal, a revolt erupted in 1820 inspired by the revolutionary spirit.

When Napoleon invaded Portugal (1807-08), King John IV fled to Brazil.

In 1808, the Duke of Wellington defeated the French and ruled Portugal in John IV’s name.

Portuguese revolted and expelled British rulers in 1820, deprived elites and clergy of privileges, and granted freedom of expression.

A new Parliament and constitution were established.

European despots urged John IV to return in 1821, where he proclaimed a liberal policy.

In his absence, his son Pedro revolted in Brazil and declared independence in 1822.

John IV, influenced by elites, tried to override the constitution, causing popular revolt; he fled to Britain.

The Concert of Europe reinstated John IV.

After his death in 1834, Pedro became king of Portugal; a civil war ended in constitutional monarchy.

In Italy, people were dissatisfied with Congress of Vienna territorial changes.

Austrian rule was imposed on much of Italy, and despotic rulers restored elsewhere.

The spirit of nationalism made Italian youth dream of unification.

Secret societies like the Carbonari formed.

In 1820, Naples revolted against Ferdinand VI, forcing him to grant a constitution; a similar but unsuccessful revolt happened in Sicily.

Metternich opposed these revolts and suppressed them using armies, reinstalling despotic rulers.

Piedmont revolted in 1821, demanding an end to despotism and a constitutional government, aiming to free Italy from Austrian dominance and unify the country.

Emmanuel I abdicated to his brother Felix, who crushed the revolt with Austrian and Russian help.

The Balkan Peninsula was mostly under the Turkish Sultan until the late 18th century.

Balkan peoples (Serbs, Greeks, Bulgarians, Romanians) differed in language, religion, race, and nationality from Turks and sought independence.

They hoped for help from the Quadruple Alliance, but the Congress of Vienna diplomats opposed nationalism and independence.

The Greeks, disappointed, formed the Society of Friends and launched an independence struggle in 1821, inspired by revolts in Italy, Portugal, and Spain.

Metternich wanted to support the Turkish Sultan, but failed due to the Sultan’s harshness toward Christians.

Russia and France sympathized with Greece.

Greek independence was recognized by the Treaty of Adrianople (1829).