Major Philosophical Orientation – Epistemology, Ontology and Hermeneutics

Introduction

• Philosophy holds a significant position in all sciences, both natural and social sciences.

• Philosophy addresses fundamental questions about understanding the world and what knowledge is necessary.

• There is a clear relationship between philosophy and social research; both are interrelated and improve knowledge.

• Understanding philosophical episteme is important for social science researchers.

• Social research aims to discover solutions and new knowledge through systematic enquiry.

• Decisions in research are sometimes based on vital philosophical principles.

• Philosophical knowledge helps interpret social matters meaningfully and supports appropriate decision-making during the research process.

• Philosophy plays a key role in research design, requiring researchers to consider philosophical notions before starting research.

• Research philosophy in social science concerns the advancement and nature of knowledge in the social world.

• It involves significant questions about how one observes or perceives the social world.

• Epistemology and philosophy influence how a researcher approaches the research process.

• The quality of research outcomes can be affected if the researcher lacks proper philosophical knowledge.

• Philosophy enables scientists to develop a reference frame for research.

• Researchers must choose between different frames of reference.

• Social research can be conducted without philosophical reflection, but knowledge acquisition is inherently linked to philosophical orientations.

• The philosophy of social science developed from unique contemplations and issues about understanding the social world, relating closely to social science researchers’ concerns.

• Philosophy should not reflect existing prejudices in social or physical sciences, as that would undermine experience and perception.

• Philosophical inquiries need to be addressed through research discussions.

• Understanding the philosophical basis helps comprehend various methodologies used by qualitative researchers.

• Social researchers address key questions using philosophical concepts such as Ontology, Epistemology, and Hermeneutics.

Ontology

• Ontology is a branch of philosophy that discusses the nature of being, its existence, and the kinds and structures of objects.

• It addresses philosophical questions such as the existence of God, the problem of universals, the nature of the social world, and what can be known about it.

• Simply put, ontology is the study of what there is.

• Ontology helps researchers understand how certain they can be about the nature and existence of objects they study.

• It raises questions like: what truth claims can researchers make about reality? Who decides what is real? How do researchers handle conflicting ideas of reality?

• Key ontological issues include whether there is a social reality independent of humans and interpretations, and whether there is a single mutual social reality or multiple context-specific realities.

• Ontology involves categorizing and elucidating entities and concerns the object of inquiry—what is being analyzed.

• It also involves questions about the intention of existence, a priori reasoning, sensory experience, and what constitutes a valid argument.

• In social research, cosmology refers to beliefs about the fundamental nature of reality, especially social reality.

• Two major ontological perspectives on social realities:

  • Objective reality exists independently of the observer.

  • Subjective reality appears as experienced or negotiated within groups.

• Objectivist/realist ontology holds there is one single reality that exists independently of human experience, which can be studied and understood as truth. Social entities exist external to social actors.

• Relativist ontology argues reality is constructed within the human mind, so no single “true” reality exists; reality is relative to individual experiences.

• Subjectivism (constructionism/interpretivism) views social phenomena as created by the perceptions and actions of social actors involved.

• Philosophy, especially metaphysics, is central to social research questions, influencing the ideas and methods used.

• For example, a positivist may ask cause and effect questions like how class affects educational attainment.

• An anti-positivist might instead explore the meanings ascribed to class and attainment and question the explanations given.

• Ontology sits at the top of a hierarchy, guiding epistemology, methodology, and methods which align accordingly.

Epistemology

• The term “epistemology” comes from the Greek words “episteme” (meaning knowledge or understanding) and “logos” (meaning science, argument, or reason).

• Epistemology is concerned with ways of knowing and learning about the world, focusing on how we learn about reality and the basis of our knowledge.

• It explores the how and what of discovering or revealing knowledge or phenomena—i.e., what it is and how we discover it.

• Epistemology deals with:
  a) What constitutes a knowledge claim
  b) How knowledge can be acquired or produced
  c) How the transferability or generalizability of knowledge can be assessed

• It is significant because it influences how researchers frame their research process to find information.

• By examining the relationship between subject and object, epistemology’s impact on research design can be understood.

• Objectivist epistemology assumes reality exists independently of the individual mind and is useful for providing reliability and external validity in research.

• Constructionist epistemology rejects the notion of an objective truth waiting to be discovered, asserting that truth or meaning arises through engagement with realities; the real world does not exist independently of human activity or symbolic language.

• The value of constructionist research lies in producing contextual understandings of subjects or issues.

• Subjectivist epistemology views reality as communicated through various symbol and language frameworks, shaped by individual meanings imposed on the world; it reveals how personal experiences shape worldviews.

• All research methods incorporate diverse epistemological and ontological assumptions.

• According to Bryman, epistemology is a theory of knowledge concerning what counts as admissible information in a discipline.

• Saunders defines epistemology as the branch of philosophy studying the nature of knowledge and what constitutes acceptable knowledge in a field.

• Epistemological assumptions address what is considered worthy knowledge in a discipline.

• A key epistemological question in social science is whether the social world can and should be studied by the same standards and methods as the natural sciences.

• The answer influences the acceptability and validity of knowledge produced by research.

• Epistemological assumptions relate to the nature of knowledge and the methods by which it is acquired.

• Two main epistemological assumptions discussed here are Interpretivism/phenomenological and positivism.

Positivism and Interpretivism

• Two main philosophies influencing social research are positivism and interpretivism.

• Positivism holds that methods of natural sciences are suitable for social inquiry because human behavior is governed by law.

• Positivism claims it is possible to conduct independent, objective, and value-free social research.

• Interpretivism argues that natural science methods are not appropriate for social investigation because the social world is not governed by law-like regularities.

• The philosophy of qualitative research is based on the principle of interpretivism.

• According to Saunders, interpretivism is an epistemology emphasizing the necessity for researchers to understand differences between humans as social actors.

• Interpretivist researchers are known as ‘feeling’ researchers because they interpret social roles based on the meanings assigned to these roles by themselves and others.

• Interpretivists believe that realities and values are not independent, and findings are influenced by the researcher’s perspectives and values.

• From a positivist view, the social world exists externally and independently of the researcher.

• Positivists aim to conduct research in a value-free manner, where researchers are detached and use objective methods.

• Example methods in positivism include experimental methods, testing theories or hypotheses to develop and refine universal laws of nature.

• Positivist researchers believe there are clear causal relationships in the social world that can be identified and known.

• Positivists seek to explain and predict social phenomena by identifying regularities and causal connections between components of the social world.

• Positivist research methodologies are inspired by natural science logic and include:

  • Large-scale surveys of populations or representative samples

  • Use of formal questionnaires

  • Conducting standardized interviews

• This approach emphasizes statistical analysis, measures of association, and the development of measurement models.

Hermeneutics

• Hermeneutics is the theory and philosophy of comprehension and interpretation.

• The term derives from Hermes, son of Zeus, who decoded messages from the Greek gods.

• Hermeneutics deals with the interpretation of meaningful human activities and their products, especially texts.

• It addresses interpretive issues by exploring different perspectives on what understanding involves and the goals of interpretation.

• Hermeneutics is an interpretive approach to science, rather than a single unified scientific method.

• Originated in the 17th century as a method for interpreting scriptural texts.

• By the late 19th century, it expanded to include the study of human behavior.

• Philosophers like Wilhelm Dilthey emphasized understanding humans over empirical knowledge of nature.

• Interpretation in social sciences differs from interpretation in natural sciences.

• Hermeneutics tradition is traced through four philosophical phases:

  • First tradition by Friedrich Schleiermacher emphasizes correct interpretation through understanding the author’s intent and the context of enactment.

  • Second tradition by Dilthey focuses on hermeneutic re-enactment and empathetic understanding, imagining others’ perspectives to recreate experiences.

  • Third tradition, hermeneutic reconstruction, developed by Carl-Otto Apel and Jurgen Habermas, highlights the concept of “false consciousness” that obscures understanding of human experience; advocates for theories sensitive to social and power structures.

  • Fourth tradition, productive or projective hermeneutics, contrasts with re-enactment by stating researchers cannot “bracket” assumptions or fully empathize; interpretation is active meaning-making by the researcher.

• Modern hermeneutics began systematically in the 18th century Germany, further developed by Schleiermacher (19th century), and later by Martin Heidegger and Hans-Georg Gadamer (20th century).

• Hermeneutics holds that the most fundamental fact of social life is the meaning of action.

• Social life is constructed through social activities, which are meaningful to both actors and others.

• Understanding social activities requires interpreting the meanings assigned by individuals to their own and others’ actions.

• Therefore, social science disciplines should adopt a hermeneutic approach, focusing on interpreting social meanings.

• A crucial element of philosophical hermeneutics for research is interpretation.

• Interpretation involves two domains:

  • Analyzing texts and speech within their historical and social contexts, linking parts to the whole, but not recreating the original meaning entirely.

  • Arriving at an adequate understanding grounded in one’s own historical situatedness, without fully reconstructing the original basis of statements.

• People share a common belief system for constructing reality in meaningful ways, with language as the core medium.

• Language is the primary means of constructing reality and the main vehicle for communication across times and cultures.

• Hans-Georg Gadamer emphasizes language as naturally interpretive, sharp, and self-expressive, resisting rigid definitions and requiring careful interpretive judgment.

• For philosophical hermeneutics, understanding is linguistic and language is inherently interpretive.

Conclusion

• As people, we are naturally exposed to a world that is already organized.

• The researcher is an important part of the social reality they seek to understand.

• Researchers should attempt to adopt a neutral or objective position toward social realities.

• Research involves not only methodology but also the choice of research strategy, which includes underlying perspectives or beliefs about the subject being studied.

• Philosophical viewpoints are important because when explicitly stated, they reveal the assumptions researchers make about their work.

• These assumptions influence decisions regarding the purpose, design, methodology, methods, data analysis, and interpretation in research.

• The choice of what to focus on in the sciences inherently involves values related to the subject matter.

• With the rise of interdisciplinary research, evaluating the differences and similarities between philosophical approaches fosters critical reflection and discussion.

• Such evaluation addresses what we can know, what we can learn, and how this knowledge affects scientific conduct and related decisions and actions.