POLITICAL SYSTEM: CONCEPT AND TYPES

• A ‘system’ is an integrated whole of various parts, and a ‘social system’ consists of integrated functioning units, each performing a role.
• A ‘political system’ includes political institutions (e.g., government), associations (e.g., political parties), and organizations performing roles based on norms and goals (e.g., maintaining internal order, regulating foreign relations, and providing security).
• Almond and Coleman (1959) defined the political system as “a system which performs political functions in society.”
• Max Weber described the political system as an organization that claims the monopoly of legitimate physical forcewithin a given territory (i.e., state).
• Eisenstadt defined it as “the organization of a territorial society with the legitimate monopoly over the authorized use and regulation of force.”
• The political system is characterized by four elements: (1) legitimate force, (2) comprehensiveness, (3) interdependency, and (4) existence of boundaries.
• David Easton (1953) identified three components: (1) Allocates values by means of policies, (2) Allocations are authoritative, (3) Authoritative allocations are binding on society.
• Almond and Coleman (1959) gave four common properties of political systems: (1) All political systems have political structures (patterns, norms, rights, obligations), (2) Some functions are performed in all political systems (with varying frequencies and styles), (3) All political systems are multifunctional (e.g., evaluating policies, controlling people/groups), (4) All political systems are mixed systems in the cultural sense.
• Almond and Coleman described three functions of the political system: (1) To maintain integration of society through norms, implementation, and punishment, (2) To adapt and change social, economic, and religious systems for collective political goals, (3) To protect the political system from external threats.
• Almond and Coleman classified functions as output (rule-making, application, adjudication) and input (political socialization, interest articulation, aggregation, communication).
• Eisenstadt described political activities as: (1) Legislative (formulating rules), (2) Decision-making (determining society’s goals), (3) Administrative (executing rules and providing services).
• Political systems classified by Shills:
  • Democratic system: Rule by the consent of the governed through elected representatives, protecting minority rights, equality before the law, freedom of speech, press, assembly, and protection from arbitrary arrest.
  • Totalitarian system: The state controls all phases of life, with centralized authority, emphasizing the ruling classor elite’s dominance.
  • Oligarchic system: A system where a small group rules over a larger society.
• Eisenstadt classified political systems as: pluralistic, authoritarian, totalitarian, and patrimonial.
  • Pluralistic systems: Strong center, broad political freedom, and capable of sustained growth.
  • Patrimonial regimes: Emerged after World War II, characterized by personal rulership, with followers motivated by material rewards and incentives.

DEMOCRATIC POLITICAL SYSTEM AND STRUCTURE IN TRADITIONAL AND MODERN INDIAN SOCIETY

• Democracy in its broader sense is not only a political concept but also a way of life in society, where each individual is entitled to equality and can freely participate in social structures and institutions.
• In a narrower sense, democracy provides members of society the opportunity to participate freely in decisions that affect their lives individually and collectively.
• In its most restricted sense, democracy refers to citizens’ participation in political decisions of the state.
• Democracy seeks to establish an equalitarian society.
• There are different kinds of democracy:
  • Political democracy: Focuses on adult franchise and elections for choosing political leadership.
  • Social democracy: Aims at creating a classless and casteless society, breaking down social stratifications and prejudices.
  • Economic democracy: Emphasizes a welfare state and opposes the concentration of wealth and economic disparities.
  • Moral democracy: Focuses on orienting the popular attitude and thinking toward the concepts of right and wrongconduct.
• The philosophy underlying democracy includes fellow-feeling, brotherhood, and good conduct.

Democracy in Ancient India

• Rig Veda portrays democracy as a deity, called Samnana, representing the collective consciousness of the people.
• Samnana is the national mind to which individual minds must pay homage, deriving their potency from it.
• The hymn to Samnana calls for unity of minds (Sammanah), hearts (Samachittam), policy (Samanmantrah), and aspirations (akuti) in assemblies (Samgach chaddhuam, Samvadaddhuam).
• Democracy in the Vedic era emphasized the inner unity of citizens and their emotional integration.
• Democratic principles influenced political, social, and cultural spheres of public life in ancient India.
• Monarchy in ancient India was limited or constitutional, maintaining a fundamentally democratic pattern based on decentralisation and local autonomy.
• Various groups formed for self-government, including kula (clan), jati (caste), srens (guild), puga or pura (village), and janapada (state), each with their own rules promoting democracy.
• Some janapadas were republican, while others were monarchical, often having assemblies (samiti), the precursor to modern parliaments.
• R.K. Mukherjee noted the coexistence of monarchy and republican polity, with glimpses of republicanism in Brahmanical, Buddhist, and Jain texts.
• The Mahabharata references five republican unions (Andhakas, Vrishmis, Yadatas, Kukuras, Bhojas) called Sangha, with a Sangha Mukhya as Union President.
• Ganas (republics) were governed by councils of leaders called Gana-Mukhyas, each with its own parishad(assembly).
• Jain and Buddhist texts mention republics like Vajjı (Vriji) with multiple groups, including Mallakis, Lachhavis, and Gana Rapas.
• The Lichhhavis had a council of 7,707 Rajas, serving as constitutional monarchs in their republics.
• The Sakha republic is famous for giving the Buddha to the world, with 80,000 households under a President or Raja.
• Vaisalı, Pava, and Mathila were well-known republics in the Buddhist era, with assemblies serving as legislative bodies, supported by executive and judicial functionaries.
• Despite monarchy being popular, ancient India had democratic practices, although political democracy wasn’t fully developed.
• From the sixth century, democratic organizations began to decline due to constant wars by kings and monarchs, leading to a rise in principalities.
• Muslim invasions from the eighth century until the twelfth century led to the establishment of autocratic rule in India.
• British rule was against democracy; however, the Government of India Act, 1935 laid the foundation for democratic rule in India.
• The Congress held power briefly from 1935 to 1937, and efforts towards political freedom intensified after 1946, culminating in India’s independence in August 1947.
• The Indian Constitution established democracy as the basis of governance in independent India.