• Democracy was not new to India at Independence, as it had been practiced intermittently for thousands of years, notably through ancient republics of North India, though these were different from modern democratic forms.

• Modern democracy introduced new liberal ideas such as secularism, equality, fundamental rights and rule of law, which were qualitatively different from earlier political traditions in India.

• Nationalism and secularism were interpreted differently by different social groups, and many democratic ideals challenged traditional dogmas and institutions, creating tension with established social norms.

• New Panchayati institutions had agendas distinct from older community-based organisations, leading at times to conflicts between the old order and democratic decentralised structures at the grassroots level.

• India’s diversity emerged as both a strength and a challenge, as reconciling regional, cultural and social differences within a democratic framework was often difficult and occasionally met with resistance.

• Despite hiccups, resistance and contradictions, Indian democracy achieved a historic feat by sustaining itself as the largest and most diverse democracy in the world.

Nation, Democracy, Citizenship, Political Parties and Pressure Groups

• The concepts of nation, democracy, citizenship, political parties and pressure groups are already discussed earlier, and here the focus is only on specific sociological aspects of these themes.

• Nation is considered a recent phenomenon by most socio-political thinkers, and many argue that India emerged as a nation largely as a reaction to colonial rule rather than as a pre-modern nation-state.

• T K Oommen identified seven ways in which the idea of nation has been understood in the Indian subcontinent, where the first three were pre-Independence, the fourth led to Partition, and the last three describe post-Partition India.

• The first conception viewed India as an ancient civilisational entity defined by a distinct geography and a predominant Hindu culture.

• The second conception saw India as a fusion of cultures, mainly Hinduism and Islam, with Akbar’s religious synthesis cited as a key historical example.

• The third conception understood the nation as a political entity, emerging primarily as a reaction against colonial rule.

• The fourth conception proposed religion as the sole basis of nationhood, promoted by radical Hindu and Muslim organisations, and this idea ultimately led to the Partition of India.

• The fifth conception views India as a territorial nation-state with a specific cultural ethos, clearly delineated in the Constitution.

• The sixth conception defines India as a nation of many languages, constitutionally recognised through the Eighth Schedule, which accords status to most major Indian languages.

• The seventh conception understands India as a synthesis of the Great Tradition and the Little Tradition, integrating elite and folk cultural streams.

• Nationalism in India is interpreted differently by different thinkers, though most political theorists see it as essential for national integrity.

• Amartya Sen argues that Indian nationalism often borders on religious revivalism, where majority groups hijack national identity, thereby restricting individual freedom.

• Andre Beteille downplays nationalism and advocates focusing instead on poverty, hunger and illiteracy, which he sees as more urgent national concerns.

• In a highly diverse society like India, over-emphasis on a single, absolute national identity can be problematic, as it risks excluding some groups and making them suspicious of the nationalist project.

• Ramachandra Guha suggests a plural understanding of nationalism, allowing people to identify with forms such as cultural nationalism, cricket nationalism, Kargil nationalism and tsunami-relief nationalism.

• The Constitution of India defines the country as a Sovereign, Socialist, Secular and Democratic Republic, laying the normative foundation of Indian democracy.

• Indian democracy is a unique institution, being the largest and among the most vibrant democracies in the world, despite challenges like corruption, illiteracy, casteism and regionalism.

• Political parties have played a positive role in sustaining democracy, and despite widespread illiteracy at Independence, universal adult franchise proved successful contrary to Western scepticism.

• The Indian electorate has repeatedly demonstrated democratic maturity, maintaining faith in democracy across elections, with consistent support from armed forces and the judiciary.

• Political parties in India operate at both state and federal levels, with parties operating across multiple states designated as national parties as per Election Commission guidelines.

• By 2016, India had over 1760 registered political parties, including seven national parties, 48 state parties and more than 1700 unrecognised parties.

• Parties register with the Election Commission of India and are accorded state or national status based on objective performance-based criteria.

• Political parties mobilise public opinion, act as channels of communication in legislatures, and raise social and economic issues before the government.

• India experienced political stability for nearly two decades after Independence, after which coalition politics emerged, leading to compromises and backdoor political deals.

• Despite its drawbacks, coalition culture also produced a more inclusive political system by encouraging a vibrant multi-party democracy.

• Indian political parties are often criticised for dynasty politics, casteism, corruption, communalism and vote-bank politics.

• Pressure groups in India have grown gradually, with early growth being slow due to state dominance and weak institutional capacity.

• The 1980s marked a surge in voluntary organisations and pressure groups as the state retreated from developmentalism and neo-liberal forces gained prominence.

• Persistent issues like poverty, inequality and deprivation led to a legitimacy deficit of the state, prompting groups to actively demand their share of resources, seen as a zero-sum game.

• As a result, diverse pressure groups based on business, caste, religion, region, occupation and specific interests emerged, influencing politics without directly contesting power.

• Contemporary pressure groups increasingly rely on subtle influence and backdoor lobbying, operate in a context different from Western groups, and are often parochial, internally undemocratic and sometimes unconstitutional.