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Book No. – 002 (Political Science)
Book Name – Political Theory (Rajeev Bhargava)
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1. INTRODUCTION
2. SEX IS TO NATURE AS GENDER IS TO CULTURE
3. MALE/FEMALE IN THE NON-WEST
4. DEVELOPMENTS IN THE SEX/GENDER DISTINCTION IN FEMINIST THEORY
5. MASCULINITY
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Gender
Chapter – 14
Table of Contents
INTRODUCTION
- Feminist theory introduced the distinction between ‘sex’ and ‘gender’, a concept that has been developed in various ways by different strands of feminist thought.
- The chapter begins with this basic distinction between sex and gender and explores its significance.
- It is noted that the rigid male/female opposition is specific to modernity and to Western cultures.
- The chapter explores how different kinds of feminist theory have complicated the sex/gender distinction in four distinct ways.
- The chapter concludes with a brief examination of the emerging field in feminist theory: the study of masculinity, its construction, and its implications for men in patriarchal society.
SEX IS TO NATURE AS GENDER IS TO CULTURE
- The distinction between ‘sex’ and ‘gender’ is a key contribution of feminist theory; sex refers to biological differences between men and women, while gender refers to the cultural meanings attached to those differences.
- This distinction challenges biological determinism, which justifies oppression based on the assumption that differences between men and women are natural and unchangeable.
- Biological determinism has historically been a tool for legitimizing women’s oppression, similar to how racism and the caste system justify inequality based on birth and supposed natural superiority.
- Feminist anthropologists, particularly Margaret Mead, demonstrated that masculinity and femininity vary across cultures, meaning the qualities considered masculine or feminine are not universal.
- Child-rearing practices are identified as the primary means of establishing and perpetuating gender differences, with boys and girls being socialized into gender-specific behaviors, which are enforced through punishments when necessary.
- Feminists argue that qualities like bravery and confidence (deemed ‘masculine’) and sensitivity and shyness (deemed ‘feminine’) are socially constructed and perpetuated by cultural institutions.
- Simone de Beauvoir famously stated, “One is not born, but is made a woman,” emphasizing that femininity is not a biological fact but a socially constructed role.
- Masculine characteristics are generally valued more than feminine traits, and those who do not conform to gender norms are disciplined; for instance, men who cry are demeaned with taunts like, “Why are you crying like a woman?“
- Even when women show traditionally masculine qualities like bravery, these qualities are still seen as inherently masculine, exemplified by the phrase: “She fought like a man.”
- The sexual division of labour is not biological, but driven by ideological assumptions; for example, work like cooking and cleaning is seen as ‘women’s work’, despite it not being biologically linked to sex.
- Public work, such as nursing and teaching, is often ‘feminized’, leading to lower wages and reduced value compared to other professions.
- The feminization of certain professions is linked to the assumption that such work is an extension of the nurturingrole women are expected to fulfill in the home.
- Even when manual work traditionally done by women is mechanized, men receive training and take over the new machinery, while women are pushed into lower-paid and more arduous tasks.
- The subordination of women arises from social, cultural values, and ideologies rather than biological differences, challenging the notion that such inequality is natural or unchangeable.
- Feminists argue that gendered work, the sexual division of labour, and issues around sexuality and reproductionshould be understood as political issues that can be transformed, not as biological inevitabilities.