Rajeev Bhargava – What is Political Theory?

Chapter Info (Click Here)

Book No. – 002 (Political Science)

Book Name – Political Theory (Rajeev Bhargava)

What’s Inside the Chapter? (After Subscription)

1. INTRODUCTION

2. WHAT IS THEORY?

2.1. Humans as Concept-bearing Animals

2.2. Concepts Embedded in Practices

2.3. Human Expressions

2.4. Ad hoc and Systematic Reflections

2.5. Word-dependent and Word-independent Reflections

2.6. Varieties of Word-dependent Reflections

3. THE DISTINCTIVENESS OF THEORY

4. COSMOLOGIES AND COMMON SENSE

5. WHAT IS POLITICAL?

Note: The first chapter of every book is free.

Access this chapter with any subscription below:

Half Yearly Plan (All Subject)
Annual Plan (All Subject)
Political Science (Single Subject)
CUET PG + Political Science

LANGUAGE

What is Political Theory

Chapter – 1

Harshit Sharma

Political Science (BHU)

Contact

INTRODUCTION

A cursory glance at the newspaper reveals various political issues, such as Supreme Court rulings, protests, apologies, and legislative actions.
These issues, including reservations in private colleges, Rural Employment Guarantee Act (REGA)implementation, unequal treatment of women, police brutality, animal rights, and the Sikh massacre are all linked to state institutions like the judiciary, government, legislature, and the prime minister.
These issues are political because they involve the decision-making power of state institutions and affect society as a whole.
The term “political” may refer to any public agency with the power to make decisions affecting common life, but it must also include groups outside the state, like women’s organizations, engaging in protests.
Political actions are often conflictual as they involve competing interests, moral claims, and contesting issues.
Political acts are linked to visions of future societies, where equality and respect for all are central goals.
The term “political” has multiple meanings, including as a conflictual domain of society where different interests and visions for the future are contested.
The term theory is critical in understanding political actions, as people have various opinions on political issues, such as the reasons behind government actions or the interests they serve.
Explaining political actions is not the same as creating a theory; explanations alone do not constitute political theory.
Political theory goes beyond explaining actions, involving justifications for actions and evaluations of right and wrong.
Justifications in political theory often touch on normative questions related to ethics and morality.
Political theory deals with the normative, such as questions about the rights of women, government responses to events like massacres, and the role of the police in a democratic state.
Political theory must possess certain distinctive features that differentiate it from other forms of theory and systematic reflection, such as those found in art, literature, or religion.
The focus of political theory is on human affairs and the specific features of the political.

WHAT IS THEORY?

Humans as Concept-bearing Animals

Humans are physical creatures, part of the physical universe and subject to the same laws as other objects, but also sentient beings with biological functions such as breathing, eating, and sensory experiences.
Unlike most biological creatures, humans are concept-bearing animals, capable of forming and understanding concepts.
Humans are born into a world that is already arranged thoughtfully with concepts, distinguishing human existence from mere physical existence.
A child is taught to sit on a chair, which is more than just a piece of wood; it serves a particular purpose that is conceptually formulated (e.g., for sitting, eating, reading, etc.).
The purposes of objects, like chairs and tables, are conceptual and would not exist without humans’ ability to think about them in specific ways.
Humans also understand each other’s social roles conceptually, such as a teacher performing the role of instruction and a student learning from that role.
Society functions on shared understandings of roles, which every child learns through informal instruction in concepts related to their place in the world.
The human world is conceptual through and through, unlike the purely physical, chemical, or biological worlds.
While plants and lower order animals sense the world, humans experience it thoughtfully, meaning their experience is mediated by images, concepts, and representations.
Human experience is not just sensory but thoughtful, which can be called lived experience.

Concepts Embedded in Practices

Most concepts used in everyday living are not formally learned in the classroom but are acquired through participation in various practices.
Concepts can be likened to tools, but they are not mental objects we pick out when needed; instead, they are embedded in our practical skills and routines.
Much of our conceptual understanding is available as a skill or embedded in practices, often without us being aware of it.
Many activities we perform are not thoughtless but are done without interrupting our flow of activity or consciously reflecting on them.
For example, a bus driver changes gears without thinking about it, or we see a table or book and understand what actions are associated with them, like sitting or reading.
Similarly, when someone enters a poll booth, we understand that they are voting, and this understanding is direct and practical, not inferred.
This understanding of people, objects, and social relationships is what can be described as embedded understandingof things, practices, people, and relationships.

Human Expressions

All humans have the ability not only to have thoughtful experiences but also to express these thoughts through different media.
A child experiences a piece of wood as a chair or table, but can express this experience in various forms such as drawing, acting, miming, dancing, or photography.
There are multiple ways to express an experience, some that rely on words and others that do not.
We may express experiences in words to others, such as saying, “Hey! I see a table there,” or privately to ourselves, “That’s a table, isn’t it?”
These expressions can be public (in outer world) or private (in our heads), the latter referred to as subjective reflections.
Subjective reflections are a form of mirroring the world in our own heads.

Ad hoc and Systematic Reflections

Expressions, including subjective reflections, can occur randomly, spontaneously, or be systematically arranged.
People often have spontaneous and random reflections from time to time.
For instance, while writing with chalk on the blackboard, if the chalk crumbles, it may interrupt the flow of action, prompting the person to reflect on the chalk’s quality.
One might have an embedded understanding of what chalk is and how to use it, but an unexpected issue may trigger deeper reflection, such as questioning, “Is this really a piece of chalk?”
Random thoughts often arise in response to interruptions or problems encountered during routine activities, and then disappear without a specific reason.

Word-dependent and Word-independent Reflections

If a random thought is not allowed to disappear but is instead engaged with and pursued, it can evolve into a sustainedand systematic empirical enquiry.
For example, examining not just a piece of chalk, but the entire batch of chalk, identifying defects, and researching the quality of other batches from the same manufacturer demonstrates a systematic reflection.
A report written on the chalk’s quality would become an expression of systematic reflection, as it is word-dependentand organized.
Humans have the ability to systematically reflect and express themselves not just through words, but in various non-linguistic media like music, sculpture, painting, dance, pottery, and architecture.
Filmmakers and painters can reflect on complex social issues, like the human condition, societal transition, modernity, or the futility of war, without using words, through their art.
Examples of systematic reflections in art include Ajanta cave paintings, Madhubani and Worli paintings, and Picasso’s Guernica.
Other forms of systematic reflection may use language, but in creative and different ways, such as in performancesby artists like Amir Khan or Kumar Gandharva.

Varieties of Word-dependent Reflections

Word or language-dependent systematic expressions can be accomplished in various modes such as essays, dialogues, poetry, and newspaper articles.
Ethnography, a record of experiences in a village by an anthropologist, is another example of a systematic expressionof collective lived experiences.
Folk tales, moral fables, myths, legends, epic poetry, short stories, and novels are all also systematic reflections.
Theory can be viewed as a particular form of language-dependent systematic expression, distinct from other forms but related to them.
Like other expressions, theory articulates a conceptual world practically lived by a specific set of human agents in its own distinctive way.
Theory is distinguished from other language-dependent systematic expressions by six features, four shared with philosophy and two specific to theory.

THE DISTINCTIVENESS OF THEORY

The first feature of theory is an obsessive and self-conscious concern with the internal structure of concepts, focusing on how concepts relate to one another and form clusters.
Theorists, or philosophers, examine concepts and their meanings carefully, answering questions like “What is justice?” or “What distinguishes power from influence?”
In ordinary life, people use words unself-consciously, but philosophers and theorists must engage deeply with word meanings and their interrelations.
Philosophers are expected to clarify concepts like freedom, explaining how they relate to each other, such as the relationship between freedom, equality, and justice.
Theorists also define the distinctions between words that may appear similar, like social revolution versus social reform.
Philosophy and theory involve detailed reflection on concepts, going beyond the surface-level understanding used in everyday life.
A specific example: freedom is explored by questioning its different meanings—freedom from constraints (physical, legal, psychological, social).
Constraints include physical (e.g., being in chains), legal (e.g., breaking the law), and psychological (e.g., lack of self-confidence due to past experiences).
Social constraints are considered in contexts like education, where economic barriers prevent access to higher education despite legal and physical freedom.
There are different conceptions of freedom, some focusing on fulfilling desires, others emphasizing self-realizationand reason.
The task of political theory is to elaborate on these different conceptions of freedom and argue for why one is better than others, guiding the choice of the most appropriate conception.
The second distinctive feature of theory or philosophy is that it is a rational enterprise, where conclusions are supported by a discernable structure of reasons behind them.
Philosophers and theorists do not rely solely on instincts, emotions, or flashes of insight, but rather demand reasons for every assertion or proposal they make.
Reasoning is a process that continues beyond one reason, requiring a chain of reasons that link and support one another.
While philosophers seek to understand the ultimate cause or justification of events, it is doubtful humans can ever reach a final reason beyond which there are no further justifications.
Example: scientific theories like the claim that water is a compound require supporting evidence, demonstrating that water consists of hydrogen and oxygen, along with the mechanisms behind this process.
Similarly, the proposal that education is a fundamental right must be backed by arguments connecting education, employment, and dignity to human well-being.
The rational structure of theories makes them subversive, with the potential to transform societies by continuously questioning and offering justifications for their claims.
The third feature of theory is its aspiration for truth and objectivity. These truths are context-dependent and not valid for all times and places.
Theories are not seeking a God-like objectivity but instead aim for humanly achievable truths, dependent on the collective reasoning of people at a given time.
New information or flaws in arguments may lead to revisions of previously held truths, emphasizing the fallibility of human knowledge.
The fourth feature of theory is its commitment to unearthing background assumptions and presuppositions underlying beliefs, statements, actions, and practices.
Example: gravity is a presupposed force that is not always articulated but essential to our existence and actions.
Similarly, we make assumptions about everyday events, such as attending a class, without always making them explicit.
In 17th century England, politicians had begun discussing politics without reference to religious principles, a shift articulated by Hobbes.
Theorists are committed to articulating these background assumptions, which often remain unspoken but shape our understanding and actions.
The fifth feature is that a theory aspires to generality and abstraction, aiming to cover a wide range of related phenomena, not just a single, concrete instance.
A theory of motion, for example, applies equally to planets and rolling stones.
A theory cannot be confined to a singular phenomenon, such as Indian nationalism, but must aim to explain broader, related phenomena.
The sixth feature of modern theories is their need to transcend the empirical world while being rooted in it, incorporating data, lived experiences, and empirical inquiries.
Modern theories must not bypass the empirical world but should engage with it, taking into account collective practices and the common sense of a society.
Empirical inquiries and sound data from sciences and social observations must inform theoretical propositions.
A theory must balance rootedness in lived experience with its abstract, generalized nature.
To sum up, a theory has six features: (a) conceptual sensitivity, (b) rational structure, (c) aspiration for truth and objectivity, (d) generality, (e) unearthing assumptions, and (f) non-speculative intent.
A theory is not identical to speculation, empirical inquiry, or ideology, but distinguishes itself by integrating all six features.
Theories are distinct from ideology, worldview, and cosmology, and do not necessarily include a commitment to foundationalism or universalism.

COSMOLOGIES AND COMMON SENSE

The terms ‘embedded understandings’ and ‘common sense’ refer to the practical knowledge and reflections we hold without always being able to articulate them.
Embedded understanding is pre-reflective and inarticulate, a practical knowledge acquired through initiation into societal practices, similar to a cook who can create dishes without being able to explain the process.
Common sense is broader, including embedded understanding and spontaneous, ad hoc reflections that align closely with practices, often incorporating stories, epics, folk tales, and myths passed down through generations.
These reflections form cosmologies, which are nearly systematic but non-theoretical views of the world that integrate the physical, biological, social, mental, and spiritual realms.
Cosmologies can become part of a society’s common sense, reflecting how people understand and evaluate the universe.
The relationship between theories and common sense is explored: while theories can shape and inform common sense, the two must remain distinct entities.
The common sense of a society is a collective possession, while a theory is a specialized activity dependent on specific skills.
Theorizing is not necessarily an elite activity, though it requires specific skills that can be acquired by anyone with talent, opportunity, and commitment.
Just as cricket is not confined to a special class, theory is not reserved for a particular group of people.
It is important to avoid the belief that theory is the monopoly of a naturally gifted group or that it is easily accessible to everyone.
Everyone may have a worldview or philosophy, but not everyone actively does philosophy or theorizes.
The distance between theory/philosophy and common sense or practice should not be exaggerated, as there is also a close relationship between them.
Philosophy articulates what is already implicit in human practice and common sense, making it down-to-earth in this sense.
Philosophy also takes flight, trying to explain, justify, and sometimes change human practices in general terms.
Unlike mere description, philosophy attempts to modify and critique existing practices through systematic reflection, highlighting its theoretical nature.

WHAT IS POLITICAL?

The term ‘political’ has multiple meanings, evolving over time.
In classical Greece, it was derived from ‘polis’, meaning community or a place with a common world.
‘Political’ refers to what is done within or by the community, specifically decision-making within and about the community.
To live in the polis means to make decisions through words and persuasion, not through force or violence.
The term also refers to what decisions are about, particularly the good life of the community.
Decisions may involve questions such as who belongs to the community, who rules, and how resources are distributed.
The empirical and the normative are intermeshed in this understanding, and there is no clear distinction between political and social spheres.
Political theory is about how decisions regarding the good life in a community are made and justified.
With the advent of modernity, the meaning of ‘political’ shifted, especially concerning the power to make decisions.
In classical Greece, decisions about the community were made by some, often excluding slaves, women, and aliensfrom decision-making.
Modernity made the meaning of power more explicit, shifting from collective decision-making to power over others, where some groups can marginalize and exclude others.
Political science came to focus on the exercise of power and how decisions are made, often involving the marginalization of certain groups.
A new concept of the state emerged in modernity, concentrating decision-making power in specific institutions like the government, military, bureaucracy, and police.
Political science and theory started to focus on the institutions of the state, while sociology studied those outside the state.
Some believed the state worked for the benefit of all individuals, while others saw it as serving the elite or dominant class.
The term ‘political’ encompasses several meanings:
- (a) Collective power to make decisions about the good life of the community, including ethical values.
- (b) Power over others, used to realize self-interest at the expense of the community.
- (c) State power to achieve the common good/values.
- (d) State power used to dominate and exclude others.
The coexistence of (a) or (c) with (b) or (d) creates a split between the empirical and the normative.
Subordinate groups may be excluded from decision-making but may desire a new world where everyone participates.
The fifth meaning, (e), refers to values common to all of humanity or all living species, making polis coincide with cosmopolis.
This meaning of the political is maximally abstracted, disconnected from specific communities and power.
Today, the term ‘political’ is used in all five senses as both an empirical and normative concept.
Political theory involves reflection on the following:
- (a) Collective power to make decisions about the good life.
- (b) Mechanisms by which some groups exercise power over others.
- (c) Use of state power for the community’s good.
- (d) State power used by one group to dominate others.
- (e) Values by which a community governs its life.
- (f) A grand theory that reflects on the general condition of humanity and values for governing all of humanity.