Realism

Introduction

• There are two broad perspectives on the nature of International Relations (IR): one views IR as conflict-ridden and the other sees it as cooperative and peaceful.

• Most theoretical approaches to the study of IR align with one of these two perspectives.

• Some frameworks attempt to combine or reconcile these contrasting viewpoints, while others criticize the dominant perspectives and offer alternative approaches to understanding IR.

• The purpose of this unit is to introduce the importance of national power and the conflict-ridden nature of IR.

• The Realist School is a longstanding and dominant theoretical tradition in the study of IR.

• The key questions addressed include: (i) What are the core theoretical assumptions of Realism? (ii) Who are the principal thinkers who have shaped the Realist School of IR? (iii) Does Realism withstand criticism? (iv) Does Realism remain relevant in explaining the contemporary world?

Realism: Main Assumptions and their Implications

• Assumptions are fundamental beliefs that serve as the building blocks of a theoretical approach.

• These assumptions help explain problems and provide coherence to a perspective or approach to International Relations (IR).

• The core assumptions of Realism are important as they help understand and make sense of IR.

• States are the primary actors in the international system, with three expressed meanings:
  i) International politics is a domain of conflict between sovereign states.
  ii) States are sovereign, unitary, and rational actors focused on fixed political goals and cost-benefit analyses.
  iii) States promote and guarantee their own interest, with the foremost interest being security and the expansion of power.
  iv) To ensure security, states seek to secure and accumulate power, which deters attacks from other states.

• IR is anarchic in character, meaning there is no central authority or world government to manage relations among sovereign states.

• The absence of a world authority allows states to focus on self-interest and national interest, expanding their capabilities (military, technological, economic, political).

• Control over material resources is fundamental to world politics, as states strive to gain control over resources to enhance their capabilities.

• The reasons for states’ desire to control resources include the lack of central authority, the scarcity of resources, and the ability to use resources for coercive power.

• Thinkers like E. H. Carr, Hans Morgenthau, and Kenneth Waltz have shaped Realist ideas, though there are differences among them.

• Sovereign states are the only full actors in the international system, drawing from Thomas Hobbes’ idea of man as selfish, rational, and calculating.

• Realists argue that states are insecure and distrustful of other states, leading to power accumulation and preparation for war to guarantee security.

• The international system is anarchic, with no supranational authority, and inhabited by self-centered, distrustful actors.

• As states accumulate power, others fear them, creating an atmosphere of mutual distrust.

• Realists believe that states may follow international rules in the short term but will violate them when no longer convenient for their pursuit of power.

• Relative power of states shapes and stabilizes the international system, and the system’s polarity is important in analyzing IR.

• Realism helps explain the persistence of war, which is defined as large-scale organized violence between international actors for political ends.

• Realism simplifies the world to focus on actors and interactions that contribute to international conflict, claiming that their perspective is empirical and grounded in actual behavior.

Classical Realism

• Realism has a long intellectual tradition with its claims found in works from Greece, Rome, India, and China.

• Greek philosopher Thucydides in History of The Peloponnesian War illustrates Realism’s skepticism about the restraining effects of morality.

• Thucydides suggests that what is ‘right’ matters only between equals; otherwise, the strong do what they can, and the weak suffer what they must.

• Kautilya in the Arthashastra focuses on the survival and expansion of the state, advising rulers on the usefulness of a balance of power and carving out spheres of influence.

• Niccolò Machiavelli (1469–1527) advised rulers to focus on power and security, without being bound by individual morality, justifying any action vital for state survival.

• Thomas Hobbes (1588–1679) influenced Realism with his concept of the ‘state of nature’, where rational, self-centered individuals pursue their interests through constant conflict.

• Hobbes describes the individual’s life in the state of nature as ‘solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short’, similar to a state in the anarchic international system.

• Realism’s core elements, such as rational actors, anarchic systems, and states seeking to maximize power and control over material resources, developed over time, especially between the two world wars.

• The identification of these core elements in Realism was essential for understanding international relations and the politics of powerful countries post-World War II.

• Edward Hallett Carr developed Realist thinking in his book The Twenty Years’ Crisis, 1919-1939, aiming to correct the utopian imagination of world politics.

• Carr emphasized that idealism (such as Woodrow Wilson’s 14-point program) was unrealistic, especially after the devastation of World War I.

• Wilson’s proposals, like the League of Nations, collective security, and self-determination, were deemed utopian by Carr, as they failed in practice and led to World War II.

• Carr criticized liberal idealism, arguing it was not based on realistic analysis, and he believed the League of Nations and its ideals were destined to fail.

• Classical Realism in the 20th century, starting in 1939 with Carr’s book, was further developed in the 1940s and 1950s, with Hans Morgenthau’s Politics among Nations becoming the leading text.

• Classical Realism suggests that the desire for power is rooted in human nature, leading states to pursue power without restraint.

• According to Classical Realism, conflict and war are explained by human nature, with aggressive statesmen or domestic political systems fueling expansionist policies.