• The definition of a tribe remains ambiguous, with anthropologists, sociologists, social workers, and administrators having differing views on the subject.
• Historically, India’s official portrayal of tribes has been inconsistent, with terms such as “aboriginal” and “depressed classes” being used until 1941, when the term scheduled tribes or Adivasi was adopted, though ambiguity remained.
• Several definitions of a tribe are used, such as:
  • A tribe as a collection of families bearing a common name, speaking a common dialect, and occupying a common territory.
  • A tribe as a group of people in a primitive or barbarous stage of development, acknowledging the authority of a chief and regarding themselves as having a common ancestor.
  • A tribe as a group with a common culture, a feeling of unity, and a certain community of interest.
  • A tribe as a social group with territorial affiliation, endogamy, and a common language.
  • A tribe as a group with a common name, territory, and a belief that outsiders are enemies.
  • A tribe as a social group with territorial affiliation, hereditary or otherwise tribal officers, and a homogeneity of ethnic and territorial integration.
• Tribal societies are typically small in scale, with a limited range of social, legal, and political relations, unwritten languages, and a focus on compactness and self-sufficiency.
• Anthropologists have debated the key characteristics of a tribe, such as kinship ties, common territory, one language, joint ownership, and absence of internal strife.
• Some anthropologists argue against certain features like habitation in a common territory being essential for a tribe, while others claim it is vital, even for nomadic tribes.
• There are challenges in defining a tribe due to the lack of clear distinctions between tribal and peasant societies, with both being somewhat nebulous.
• Early anthropologists assumed tribal societies were homogeneous with a common government, dialect, and culture, but there is no universally accepted definition.
• Indian anthropologists have not fully addressed the issue of defining tribal society within the Indian context, as most attempts have been based on comparisons with other societies like peasants or castes.
• Bailey is one of the few Indian anthropologists who tried to define tribes in terms of segmentary principles, contrasting tribes with castes, rather than peasants.
• Andre Beitelle suggests that the lack of a clear definition of tribal society in India is due to difficulties in creating one suitable for the Indian context, as definitions in the international field are either too broad or too narrow.
• T.B. Naik (1960) presents criteria and indices of tribal life in the Indian context, challenging traditional definitions of a tribe.
• Geographical location: Tribes are not necessarily forest dwellers. For example, the Dublas of Surat live in fertile plains but are considered tribes.
• Primitive religion: The concept of primitive religion is too fluid, as India’s religious diversity ranges from ancient philosophy to tribal gods and beliefs.
• Geographical isolation: Many tribal groups do not live in isolation, making this criterion unreliable.
• Primitive economic system: Tribes are not the only groups with primitive economic systems, as many peasant groups share similar characteristics.
• Naik’s criteria for a tribe:
  1. Functional interdependence: A tribe should have minimal functional interdependence within the community, unlike the highly interdependent Hindu caste system.
  2. Economic backwardness: A tribe should be economically backward, characterized by:
     • Lack of understanding of monetary economics.
     • Use of primitive methods for exploiting natural resources.
     • An underdeveloped economy.
     • Multifarious economic pursuits.
  3. Geographical isolation: A tribe should be relatively isolated from others.
  4. Cultural characteristics: Tribes should speak a common dialect, which may vary regionally.
  5. Political organization: Tribes should have some form of political organization, with a community Panchayatbeing an influential institution.
  6. Psychological conservatism: Tribe members should have a strong attachment to their old customs and traditions.
  7. Customary laws: Tribes should have customary laws, which may sometimes put them at odds with formal legal systems.
• Acculturation: A tribe can undergo acculturation, but a high degree of acculturation would exclude a group from being considered a tribe.
• Ehrenfels further critiques some points, particularly:
  1. Isolation: A tribe is often not included in the Hindu caste system, speaking a common dialect and following similar practices.
  2. Economic sufficiency: Instead of being economically backward, tribes are self-sufficient in various occupations.
  3. Geographical isolation: While not all tribes are geographically isolated, their economic solidarity helps maintain stability.
  4. Common dialects: Not all tribes share a common language, but tribal consciousness does not rely solely on language.
  5. Political organization: Tribes may or may not have formal political structures like Panchayats.
  6. Tribal identity: The key to a tribe’s identity is a sense of belonging to a valuable group.
  7. Customary laws: Tribes have their own customary laws which often lead to conflicts with external legal systems.
• The Tata Institute of Social Sciences critiques the anthropological criteria, suggesting they apply to idealized tribal communities and do not match the reality of scheduled tribes.
• Arthur Wilke et al. (1979) argue that anthropological difficulties arise from the intellectual legacy of anthropology, where tribes are idealized without empirical grounding.
• Aiyappan humorously remarks that a tribe is defined by what a competent anthropologist considers to be a tribe, reflecting the challenge of providing a clear-cut definition.
• Despite debates, anthropologists have made strides in standardizing tribal definitions, based on empirical research.
• Majumdar and Madan (1967) provide defining characteristics of Indian tribes:
  1. A tribe is a territorial group with a traditional territory that emigrants still regard as home.
  2. Kinship is a strong integrating factor in tribes, leading to endogamy and the division of tribes into clans.
  3. Tribe members speak a common language, either their own or that of their neighbors.
  4. Tribes may have a number of Panchayats or tribal councils, depending on their heterogeneity.
  5. Other distinguishing features include dormitory institutions, lack of formal schooling, and unique customs surrounding birth, marriage, and death.
• Arthur Wilke et al. (1979) argue that bureaucratic constraints and ongoing acculturation make it difficult to define tribes in India, where tribal identities are complex and diverse.

• Due to the multiplicity of factors and the complexity of problems, classifying Indian tribes into different groups is difficult.
• The Commissioner for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes undertook the task of investigating the possibility of adopting classification criteria for tribes.
• The state governments were asked to suggest characteristics that could distinguish the so-called “aboriginal” groups from the rest of the population.
• The Assam Government suggested the following criteria for classification:
  • Descent from Mongoloid stock.
  • Affiliation with Tibeto-Burman linguistic groups.
  • Existence of a social organization of the village clan type.
• The erstwhile Bombay Government considered residence in forest areas as the primary criterion for classification.
• The Madhya Pradesh Government emphasized the following criteria:
  • Tribal origin.
  • Speaking a tribal language.
  • Residence in forest areas.
• Other states like Madras, Orissa, Andhra, Mysore, Travancore suggested a variety of linguistic, geographical, economic, and social factors as indicators.
• Based on these suggested characteristics, the tribes of India can be classified according to:
  • Territorial distribution.
  • Linguistic affiliation.
  • Physical and racial characteristics.
  • Occupation or economy.
  • Cultural contact.
  • Religious beliefs.

• Geography and tribal demography permit a regional grouping and zonal classification of Indian tribes.

• B.S. Guba classified Indian tribes into three zones:

  • Northern and North-Eastern Zone
  • Central or Middle Zone
  • Southern Zone

Northern and North-Eastern Zone:

• Includes the sub-Himalayan region and the mountain valleys of the eastern frontiers of India.
• Tribes in Assam, Manipur, and Tripura are part of the eastern section.
• In the northern part, the tribes of eastern Kashmir, eastern Punjab, Himachal Pradesh, and northern Uttar Pradesh are included.
• Notable tribes: Muta, Dafla, Miri, Gurung, and Apatani (west of the Subansiri River), Mishmi tribes (between Debong and Lohit rivers), Kamti, Singpho, and various Nagatribes.
• South of the Nagahills in Manipur, Tripura, and Chittagong hill tracts live the Kuki, Lushai, Khasi, and Garo(inhabitants of the newly created Meghalaya state).
• In the sub-Himalayan regions of Sikkim and northern Darjeeling, tribes like Lepcha are found.
• Uttar Pradesh‘s Himalayan region includes tribes like Tharu, Bhoksa, Junsari (Khasa), and Bhotia.
• The zone has a low population density and many tribes practice terrace or Jhum (shifting) cultivation, facing poverty and economic backwardness.

Central or Middle Zone:

• Consists of plateaus and mountainous belts between the Indo-Gangetic plain and roughly the Krishna river.
• Separated from the northeastern zone by the gap between the Garo hills and the Rajmahal hills.
• Tribal concentration in Madhya Pradesh, with extensions in Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Bharat, southern Rajasthan, northern Maharashtra, Bihar, and Orissa.
• Important tribes: Savara, Gadaba, and Borido (Ganjam district), Juang, Kharia, Khond, Bhumij, and Bhuiya(Orissa hills), Munda, Santhal, Oraon, Ho, and Birhor (Chotanagpur plateau).
• Other tribes: Katkari, Kol, Bhil, and the Gond (occupying Gondwanaland).
• In the Satpura and Maikal hills, tribes like Koraku, Agaria, Pardhan, and Baiga are found.
• Bastar hills host the Muria, Hill Muriya of the Abhujmar hills, and Bison horn Maria of the Indravati valley.
• Most tribes in this zone practice shifting cultivation, but Oraon, Santhal, Munda, and Gond have adopted plough cultivation due to cultural contact.

Southern Zone:

• Covers southern India, south of the Krishna river, stretching from Wynaad to Cape Camorin.
• States included: Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Coorg, Travancore, Cochin, Tamil Nadu.
• Tribes include the Chenchu (Nallamallais hills), Yeruva, Toda (lower slopes of Coorg hills), Irula, Paniyan, and Kurumba (Wynaad area).
• Primitive tribes like Kadar, Kanikkar, Malvadan, and Malakuravan live in the dense forests of Cochin and Travancore.
• Toda, Badaga, and Kota live in the Nilgiri hills.
• Most tribes in this zone depend on hunting and fishing for food gathering, with the exception of a few groups.

Andaman and Nicobar Islands:

• These tribes are not included in the zones but constitute a fourth zone.
• Tribes: Jarwa, Onge, North Sentinelese, Andamanese, and Nicobari.
• Ethnically close to the south Indian tribes, they are geographically separated from the main tribal groups.

• People of India can be divided into four speech families:

  • Indo-European (Aryan)
  • Dravidian
  • Austric (Kolar Munda)
  • Tibeto-Chinese (Sino-Tibetan)

• D. N. Majumdar (1955) suggests that the Aryan speech influences tribal people only due to cultural contact, as most tribal people have pre-Aryan or non-Aryan racial origins.

• Most scholars classify Indian tribal people primarily into three speech families:

  • Dravidian
  • Austric
  • Tibeto-Chinese

• Dravidian speech family:

  • Spoken primarily in middle and southern India.
  • The most developed Dravidian languages: Tamil, Telugu, Kannada, and Malayalam.
  • Gonds are the most prominent tribal speakers in this family, spoken from Madhya Pradesh to Andhra Pradesh.
  • Gond language has no literature but is significant due to its numerical strength.
  • Other languages in this group: Koi (spoken by Kondh of Orissa, Oraon of Chotanagpur, and Malto of Rajmahal hills), Toda, Paliya, Chenchu, Irula, and Kadar.

• Austric speech family (also known as Munda speech family):

  • Max Muller first distinguished this group from Dravidian and named it the Munda speech family.
  • Mainly spoken by tribes in the Chotanagpur area, but also found in parts of Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, West Bengal, Madras, and the Tharai region of the Himalayas (from Bihar to Simla hills).
  • Notable languages: Santhali (spoken in Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa), Mundari, Ho, Kharia, Bhumij, and other speeches from Bihar.

• Tibeto-Chinese speech family:

  • Spoken primarily by tribals of Mongol racial stock.
  • Divided into two branches:
    • Tibeto-Burman
    • Siamese-Chinese
  • Tribes in Assam, Meghalaya, and other parts of north-east India speak languages from this family.

• D. N. Majumdar (1955) emphasized the complexity of classifying the tribal people of India based on racial affinities.
• Fixing racial origins or affinities of tribal communities is one of the most complicated tasks faced by Indian anthropologists.
• There is no direct evidence of the ethnic stocks that inhabited different parts of India in prehistoric times.
• Knowledge about the racial composition of India in historic times is equally scanty, making historical reconstructions of racial history speculative.
• The first scientific racial classification of India was attempted by Sir Herbert Risely in 1915 in his book The Peoples of India.
• Risely classified the entire Indian population into seven racial types:
  • (i) Turko-Iranian, (ii) Indo-Aryan, (iii) Scytho-Dravidian, (iv) Aryo-Dravidian, (v) Mongolo-Dravidian, (vi) Mongoloid, (vii) Dravidian.
• These seven types can be reduced to three basic types: the Dravidian, the Mongolian, and the Indo-Aryan.
• Risely did not provide a separate classification for the ‘aboriginals’ of India.
• The latest attempts at racial classification were made by Hutton, Guba, and Majumdar.
• Guba listed six main races with nine sub-types:
  1. Negrito
  2. Proto-Australoid
  3. Mongoloid
  4. Mediterranean
  5. Oriental type
  6. Western Brachycephalics (subtypes: Alpinoid, Dinaric, Armenoid)
  7. Palaeo-Mongoloids (subtypes: long-headed, broad-headed)
  8. Palaeo-Mediterranean
  9. Nordic
• The tribal population of India is traced mainly to the first three racial types: Negrito, Proto-Australoid, and Mongoloid.
• The Negrito racial type includes tribes from the hills of Cochin and Travancore, such as Kadar, Irula, Paliyan, and Angami Naga of Assam, as well as tribes of the Rajmahal Hills of eastern Bihar. These tribes exhibit short stature, black skin, woolly hair, thin lips, and a broad nose.
• The Proto-Australoid racial type exhibits short to medium stature, long and high heads, broad and small faces, and small flattened noses. Tribes in central India, such as Chenchu and Bhill, exhibit the characteristics of this racial type.
• The Mongoloid racial type is represented by tribes in north-east India, such as Naga, Chakma, and Lepcha. These tribes show yellowish skin, straight dark hair, flat noses, prominent cheekbones, and almond-shaped eyes with epicanthic folds.
• Despite these classifications, Indian tribes cannot be strictly categorized into a single racial type due to the country’s role as a “melting pot of races”.
• The generalized racial types do not account for all tribes; for instance, the Toda tribe of the Nilgiri Hills lacks a clear racial label.
• Serological and linguistic research are ongoing but have yet to reveal significant new aspects of the racial composition of tribal India.