Short Stories – English – UGC NET – Notes

Introduction

• A short story is a brief work of fiction that typically focuses on a single plot, character, or theme. It is a narrative form that aims to tell a complete story in a concise and condensed format. Short stories are characterized by their brevity, usually ranging from a few hundred words to around 20,000 words, although there is no strict word count limit.

Definitions of Short Story

• The impulse to share personal experiences and narrate what one has seen or lived through gave rise to the creation of short stories. This urge can be traced back to the prehistoric era, as evidenced by cave paintings across the world, where early humans depicted stories of themselves or their clans. As humanity evolved and became more skilled in language, people began to tell longer, more complex stories.
• We are all familiar with ancient collections like the Panchatantra, Jataka Tales, and Aesop’s Fables, written thousands of years ago. These early stories marked the beginning of the modern short story. Their primary purpose was to teach moral lessons, not merely to entertain or reflect society, but to offer guidance. These tales, often fables featuring animals and birds portrayed with human emotions, have a long-standing tradition across cultures, including India and Greece.
• Short stories are not a new phenomenon; storytelling has existed for ages. In earlier times, these stories were brief, often narrated in verse, and had a strong didactic tone. As humans evolved, they explored different literary forms, leading to the creation of poetry, the oldest literary form. This was followed by drama, and by the 16th century in Europe, novels began to emerge. The modern short story as a distinct literary form originated in 19th century Europe, but storytelling itself began with the development of language.
• You may have read short stories in school in your first language and in English. In India, English is often taught through short stories and poems up to the 12th standard because it is convenient for teaching and learning.
• Although we can easily recognize a short story and distinguish it from a novel, it is difficult to clearly define what a short story is—just as it is difficult to define a poem or a play. At best, we can describe it by identifying its key characteristics, and often it is easier to explain what a short story is not than to precisely define it.

European and American critics and writers were among the first to systematically study the short story. They offered critical analysis and commentary on the form. A few writers and critics have attempted definitions of short story; here are definitions of the short story by them:

1. Edgar Allan Poe:

• Poe (1809-49) is often credited with defining the short story. In his essay “The Philosophy of Composition,” Poe says that a short story requires ‘from half an hour to one or two hours in its perusal’, that is, a short story should be read in one sitting, anywhere from a half hour to two hours focusing on producing a ‘single effect’ on the reader.
• In contemporary fiction, a short story can range from 1,000 to 20,000 words. According to him, every element of the story should contribute to this effect, making the short story a highly concentrated form of fiction.

2. Frank O’Connor:

• In his book The Lonely Voice: A Study of the Short Story (1962), O’Connor describes the short story as the literary form best suited to express the voice of the marginalized or isolated individual. He believed that short stories often capture the experiences of people who are on the fringes of society. O’Connor believes that short stories are more suited to amateur writers who do not wish to have a long literary career.
• They simply want to narrate a few exciting incidents from their lives.

3. Brander Matthews:

• Matthews, an American critic, defined the short story in his essay “The Philosophy of the Short-Story” (1901) as a distinct literary form, separate from the novel, emphasizing that a short story should aim for a singular impression, achieved through a tight structure and unity of effect.
• Matthews highlights the structure of the short story in his definition. It is true that a short story writer cannot afford the luxury of space, nor can they weave a complex plot due to the constraints of length.

4. Vladimir Nabokov:

• Nabokov, a Russian writer, viewed the short story as a form that relies on precision and economy of language. He believed that a good short story would combine a strong narrative with artistic form, creating a balance between content and style.

5. Eudora Welty:

• Eudora Welty is an American writer. In her essay “The Reading and Writing of Short Stories” (1955), Welty defined the short story as a narrative that captures a moment in time, focusing on the importance of detail and the use of specific, evocative imagery to create a powerful and resonant experience for the reader.
• Welty focuses on a specific moment in time in the short story. In “The Model Millionaire,” the moment highlighted is when Hughie desperately needs ten thousand pounds to marry his beloved Laura, but he sees no way to earn such a large sum.

6. Anton Chekhov:

• Chekhov emphasized brevity, purposefulness, and realism, with a focus on characters and moments rather than elaborate plots. Although Chekhov, the Russian master of the short story, did not provide a formal definition of the genre, he emphasized certain principles of short story writing.
• He believed that a short story should be concise, with every element serving a purpose, avoiding unnecessary details or digressions. He focused on depicting life as it is, often leaving the story open-ended or unresolved, allowing readers to draw their own conclusions.

Novel and Short Story

• The novel became a highly popular form of literature across Europe from its inception in the 17th century. Scientific inventions and technological advancements led to the development of the printing press, which allowed the publishing industry to thrive. For the first time, multiple copies of a text could be printed and distributed to a growing audience. The spread of education and the rise in literacy created a new class of readers eager for fresh and entertaining content. As a result, novels gained immense popularity throughout the 17th, 18th, and 19th centuries.
• The 19th century also saw the emergence of a new literary form—the short story. Unlike earlier fables, which featured animals and conveyed moral lessons, these stories were secular and realistic, focusing on ordinary people in everyday situations. Authors aimed to portray the lives and emotional experiences of contemporary individuals. Short stories could be read in one sitting and were less complex than novels, making them appealing to modern readers.
• Important short story writers of the 19th century include Edgar Allan Poe, O. Henry, Guy de Maupassant, Oscar Wilde, Katherine Mansfield, and Anton Chekhov. In simple terms, a short story is a complete work of prose fiction of moderate length. This definition excludes stories written in verse. For example, The Canterbury Tales by Chaucer, written in the 14th century, cannot be considered short stories since they are written in verse.

Elements of Short Story

• The elements of a short story are the fundamental components that make up its structure and give it depth and meaning. To better understand and interpret short stories, one must be familiar with these key elements. The key elements of a short story include:

Plot:

• The sequence of events or actions in the story. It typically follows a structure that includes an introduction, rising action, climax, falling action, and resolution. E. M. Foster distinguishes between story and plot by giving the following example: ‘The king died and then the queen died is a story. The king died, and then queen died of grief is a plot’. Thus, plot is a consequence of events. In “The Model Millionaire,” Hughie’s kindness towards the ‘beggar’ helps him solve his problem; he donates money to the beggar out of pity, and in return, Hughie receives a substantial amount from him. In Katherine Mansfield’s short story “A Cup of Tea”, the narrator shows the consequence of Rosemary’s action. The plot of Katherine Mansfield “A Cup of Tea” critiques social attitudes towards charity and class

Characters:

• The individuals who take part in the action of the story are called characters. A short story usually focuses on one or a few central characters. Due to limited space, the writer typically introduces only two or three characters in a short story.
• For example, in A. K. Ramanujan’s short story “The Serpent Lover,” which is included in the syllabus, there are only three important characters: Kamakshi, her husband, and the Serpent King. Similarly, in “A Cup of Tea,” the important characters are Rosemary, her husband Philip, and the poor girl Miss Smith.

Setting:

• The time and place where the story occurs is called the setting. The setting helps establish the mood and context for the characters’ actions. In the short story “A Woman on a Roof,” the setting is particularly significant.
• On a hot June day, a woman comes to sunbathe in a bikini on the roof of a building when three workers notice her. The time and place of the story drive the action, as the workers, alone on the roof, feel emboldened to whistle at the woman, who is about fifty yards away.
• The setting of “The Serpent Lover” is a village in India, and it is set in ancient times. Thus, the setting of the short story helps readers believe that the serpent takes the shape of Kamakshi’s husband.

Conflict:

• The central problem or struggle that drives the plot. Conflicts can be internal (within a character) or external (between characters, or between a character and an outside force). In “A Cup of Tea,” the conflict is internal rather than external.
• The moment Rosemary realizes that her husband is attracted to the beautiful poor girl Miss Smith, her kindness towards Miss Smith vanishes, and she treats her rudely and drives her out of the house immediately. Similarly, Kamakshi’s conflict in “The Serpent Lover” is internal.
• She knows that the Serpent King is the real father of her son. She feels sad when she realizes that the Serpent King committed suicide by strangling himself in her hair. However, in the end she persuades her son to perform the last rites for the snake, thus paying homage to him.

Theme:

• The underlying message or main idea that the story conveys. Themes can explore universal truths, moral lessons, or societal issues. The theme of “A Cup of Tea” is appearance versus reality.
• Rosemary appears to be kind, gentle, and concerned for the poor girl, but the moment she realizes that her husband is attracted to the poor girl, Rosemary becomes jealous and drives the girl out of her house rudely.
• Thus, the woman who seemed to be kind and gentle turns out to be jealous and manipulative. Similarly, the theme of Doris Lessing’s short story “A Woman on a Roof” is male gaze and objectification.
• In the short story, the men project their fantasies onto the woman, reducing her to an object of desire without considering her autonomy or inner life.

Point of View:

• The perspective from which the story is told. Common points of view include first-person (narrator is a character in the story), third-person or omniscient narrator (narrator knows the thoughts and feelings of all characters).
• Very few stories use first-person narration. The stories prescribed in the syllabus use third-person narration, where someone who is not a character in the story narrates it. Thus, for example, in “The Model Millionaire”, someone tells us the story of the handsome man Hughie and his beloved Laura, but we do not know who narrates the story. Often, in thirdperson narration, the narrator uses the third-person pronoun ‘he’ or ‘she’ for the characters in the story.

Tone and Mood:

• The tone is the author’s (or narrator’s) attitude toward the subject, while the mood is the atmosphere or emotional setting created by the story. While reading “The Model Millionaire,” we can feel the light and humorous mood of the story.
• The witty exchanges of dialogue between the characters and the style of narration set the tone. In “The Serpent Lover,” the tone and mood of the story are mysterious due to the unnatural incidents that occur.

Dialogue:

• The spoken words of the characters, which can reveal their personalities, motivations, and relationships. Dialogues help to forward the plot of the story.

Narrative Style:

• The author’s choice of language, sentence structure, and literary devices, which shapes how the story is presented and interpreted.