• Through interaction, fusion, and acculturation, Aryan and Dravidian cultures underwent a transformation.
• The essential pattern of Indian culture was established by the third millennium B.C..
• Over time, separate philosophical systems emerged, each offering different solutions to philosophical issues.
• Stephen Tylor (1973) notes that these systems eventually developed a conception where independent systems were seen as subordinate and complementary parts of a comprehensive scheme.
• Each system came to be known as a darshana (a way of seeing) and aimed at achieving the common goal of salvation.
• Despite differences in method and result, the major systems agreed on essential features, such as:
  • All accepted the authority of the Vedas.
  • All maintained that salvation is the legitimate goal of philosophy.
• Six predominant systems emerged, traditionally divided into three groups of two that were thought to be complementary:
  1. Nyaya and Vaisesika.
  2. Samkhya and Yoga.
  3. Mimamsa and Vedanta.

Nyaya and Vaisesika

• Nyaya and Vaisesika systems were closely related from their early phases and eventually amalgamated.
• Together, they are often referred to as Nyaya Vaisesika.
• Nyaya means ‘right or just’ and is a system of logic or logical proof founded by Gautama (1st century A.D.?).
• Nyaya Sutra and Vaisesika Sutra are attributed to Gautama and Kanada, respectively.
• Nyaya logic is accepted as valid by all other systems.
• Logic is considered a way of combating ignorance and is given a religious basis.
• Nyaya classifies means of knowledge into four types: intuition, inference, comparison, and verbal testimony.
  • Intuition is the most important.
• Nyaya syllogism structure (five components):
  1. Proposition.
  2. Reason.
  3. Example.
  4. Application.
  5. Conclusion.
  • Example: “This hill is on fire because it smokes; whatever has smoke has fire; so does this hill; therefore, this hill is on fire.”
• Vaisesika (from Visesa, meaning “particularity”) is a doctrine that provides a physical and metaphysical basis for Nyaya.
• Vaisesika doctrine is based on six categories or objects of experience:
  1. Substance.
  2. Quality.
  3. Action.
  4. Generality.
  5. Individuality.
  6. Inherence (inseparable connection).
• The ultimate atomic substances are earth, water, fire, and air.
• Reality consists of these four gross substances plus five inferential substances: ether, time, space, self, and mind.
• Substances possess qualities (colour, taste, smell, number, conjunction, etc.) and can express actions (motion).
• Generality, individuality, and inherence can only be known by logical inference; they are not directly perceived.
• True knowledge of these categories leads to bliss, where the self becomes seedless, doesn’t take new bodies, and attains moksha (salvation).