Introduction

• After the British came to India, Indian society underwent major changes; in the 19th century, practices such as female infanticide, child marriage, sati, polygamy, and a rigid caste system became more prevalent and violated human dignity and values.
• Women were discriminated against at every stage of life, formed the disadvantaged section of society, and lacked opportunities to improve their status.
• Education was restricted to a small number of upper-caste men; Brahmins had access to the Vedas, written in Sanskrit.
• The priestly class prescribed expensive rituals, sacrifices, and birth- and death-related practices.
• British rule introduced European ideas of liberty, equality, freedom, and human rights, derived from the Renaissance, Reformation Movement, and European revolutions.
• These ideas appealed to sections of Indian society and inspired reform movements across the country.
• Leading reformers included Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Sir Syed Ahmed Khan, Aruna Asaf Ali, and Pandita Ramabai.
• The movements sought social unity and promoted liberty, equality, and fraternity.
• Legal measures improved women’s status: sati was banned in 1829 by Governor-General Lord Bentinck; widow remarriage was legalised in 1856; a 1872 law permitted inter-caste and inter-communal marriages; and the Sharda Act of 1929 prohibited child marriage, making it illegal to marry a girl below 14 or a boy below 18.
• Reform movements strongly criticised the caste system, especially untouchability.
• The combined efforts of individuals, reform societies, and religious organisations influenced society widely, with their impact most visible in the national movement.
• Women gained better educational opportunities and entered professions and public employment outside the home.
• Women played an important role in the freedom struggle, including Captain Laxmi Sehgal of the Indian National Army (INA), Sarojini Naidu, Annie Besant, and Aruna Asaf Ali.