Social Stratification – Solved PYQs of Sociology – UGC NET

Social Difference, Hierarchy, Inequality and Marginalization

1. Mark the correct sequence of the processes of social stratification (JUNE 2012)

(A) Evaluation, differentiation, ranking, rewarding
(B) Differentiation, ranking, evaluation, rewarding
(C) Ranking, evaluation, differentiation, rewarding
(D) Differentiation, evaluation, rewarding, ranking

Correct Answer: (B) Differentiation, ranking, evaluation, rewarding

Social stratification refers to the structured system of inequality in which individuals and groups are arranged in hierarchical layers within society. Sociologists have identified a sequence of processes through which stratification emerges and is maintained. The first step is differentiation, where people and social positions become distinguished from one another based on characteristics such as age, gender, occupation, education, skills, or social roles. At this stage, differences exist but they do not necessarily imply inequality.

The second process is ranking, in which these differentiated positions are arranged in a hierarchy. Society begins to place some roles, occupations, or groups above others in terms of importance, prestige, authority, or desirability. For example, certain professions may be considered more prestigious than others.

The third process is evaluation. During this stage, society assigns values to different positions and roles. Some occupations, statuses, or social characteristics are judged as more valuable, respectable, or significant than others. These value judgments are shaped by cultural beliefs, norms, and societal priorities.

The final process is rewarding, where individuals occupying highly valued positions receive greater rewards in the form of income, power, prestige, privileges, and opportunities. This distribution of unequal rewards reinforces the hierarchical structure of society and contributes to the persistence of social inequality.

This sequence is closely associated with the functionalist perspective of stratification, particularly the work of Kingsley Davis and Wilbert E. Moore, who argued that societies allocate rewards unequally to ensure that the most important positions are filled by qualified individuals. The accepted sequence of the processes of social stratification is Differentiation → Ranking → Evaluation → Rewarding, making Option (B) the correct answer.

2. Who said that the social stratification in India is based on ‘purity and pollution’? (DEC 2012)

(A) M.N. Srinivas
(B) A.R. Desai
(C) Louis Dumont
(D) Yogendra Singh

Correct Answer: (C) Louis Dumont

The idea that social stratification in India is based on the principles of “purity and pollution” was propounded by Louis Dumont, a renowned French sociologist and anthropologist. Dumont presented this argument most systematically in his influential book Homo Hierarchicus, which is considered one of the most important works on the Indian caste system.

According to Louis Dumont, the caste system is fundamentally a system of hierarchy rather than merely a division of labour or an economic arrangement. He argued that the ranking of castes is determined by religious and ritual ideas of purity and pollution. Castes regarded as ritually pure occupy higher positions in the hierarchy, while those considered less pure or polluted are placed lower. In this framework, Brahmins are generally assigned the highest status because of their association with religious rituals and sacred knowledge, whereas castes involved in occupations considered impure are assigned lower positions.

Dumont emphasized that the caste system should be understood through the ideological values embedded in Indian society rather than through economic or political factors alone. He viewed hierarchy, interdependence, and the opposition between purity and pollution as the central organizing principles of the caste order. His approach is often described as an ideological or cultural interpretation of caste.

The other scholars listed in the options made different contributions to the study of Indian society. M.N. Srinivas is known for concepts such as Sanskritization, Westernization, and the Dominant Caste. A.R. Desai analyzed Indian society from a Marxist perspective, focusing on class relations and social change. Yogendra Singh is associated with studies of modernization, social change, and the modernization of Indian tradition. The specific formulation that Indian social stratification is structured around the principles of purity and pollution is most closely associated with Louis Dumont and his analysis of the caste system in Homo Hierarchicus.

4. Prof. S.C. Dube’s study on village compost pit and its failure is due to (DEC 2012)

(A) Inequality of caste and gender
(B) Religious disharmonies
(C) Intergenerational conflict
(D) None of the above

Correct Answer: (A) Inequality of caste and gender

The failure of the village compost pit project studied by Prof. S.C. Dube is commonly explained in terms of the existing caste hierarchy and gender inequalities within rural society. S.C. Dube, one of the pioneering sociologists and anthropologists of India, emphasized that development programmes introduced in villages often encounter obstacles because planners tend to overlook the social structure and cultural realities of local communities.

In his studies of rural development and community projects, Dube observed that seemingly beneficial programmes could fail when they conflicted with established patterns of social relations. The compost pit project required collective participation and handling of organic waste and manure. In many villages, activities involving waste disposal and sanitation were traditionally associated with particular castes. Higher castes were often reluctant to participate in such work because of notions of purity and pollution, while lower castes were expected to perform these tasks. Such caste-based divisions created resistance to the programme and limited community cooperation.

Gender relations also influenced participation in development activities. Rural women often played a major role in agricultural and household work, yet they were frequently excluded from decision-making processes. The lack of attention to women’s roles and contributions reduced the effectiveness of development initiatives that required broad community involvement.

The study became an important illustration of how social stratification, caste inequality, and gender inequality can affect the success or failure of development programmes. Dube argued that effective rural development requires an understanding of local social structures, cultural values, and power relations rather than relying solely on technical or administrative solutions. His observations contributed significantly to the sociology of rural development and highlighted the importance of integrating sociological insights into planning and policy implementation.

5. In a system of social stratification, social rankings are based on attributes which may (DEC 2013)

(A) either be inherited or socially constructed.
(B) either be ascribed or acquired.
(C) either be acquired or socially constructed.
(D) either be ascribed, acquired or constructed.

Correct Answer: (D) either be ascribed, acquired or constructed.

Social stratification refers to the hierarchical arrangement of individuals and groups in society based on unequal access to resources, power, prestige, and opportunities. The positions that people occupy within a stratification system are determined by various attributes that societies consider important for ranking individuals. These attributes can be ascribed, acquired, or socially constructed, making option (D) the most comprehensive and accurate answer.

Ascribed attributes are those assigned to individuals at birth or involuntarily later in life. These include factors such as caste, race, ethnicity, gender, and family background. In traditional societies, especially in caste-based systems, social ranking is often heavily influenced by ascribed status, where individuals have little control over their social position.

Acquired attributes, also known as achieved attributes, are gained through personal effort, education, skills, occupation, achievements, and experience. Modern industrial societies place greater emphasis on achievement and merit, allowing individuals to improve their social position through their own accomplishments. Educational qualifications, professional success, and income are common examples of acquired attributes that influence social ranking.

Social rankings may also be based on socially constructed attributes. These are characteristics whose meanings and significance are created and maintained through social processes, cultural beliefs, and institutional practices. Ideas about prestige, status, class identity, and even perceptions of race or gender often involve social construction. What is valued in one society may not be valued in another, demonstrating that social rankings are influenced by cultural definitions and social interpretations.

Sociologists such as Max Weber emphasized that stratification involves multiple dimensions, including class, status, and power, all of which may be influenced by a combination of ascribed, achieved, and socially constructed characteristics. Contemporary sociological analyses recognize that social hierarchies emerge from the interaction of inherited positions, individual achievements, and socially defined categories, making ascribed, acquired, or constructed attributes important bases of social ranking in stratified societies.

6. Which one of the following statements correctly identifies ‘subaltern perspective’? (DEC 2013)

(A) An approach to study society from elite’s point of view
(B) Describes changes in society of the developed countries
(C) Approaches history from below, focused on masses at the base level of society
(D) An approach to study postmodern societies

Correct Answer: (C) Approaches history from below, focused on masses at the base level of society

The subaltern perspective is an approach that seeks to understand society and history from the viewpoint of ordinary people, marginalized groups, and those who occupy subordinate positions in the social hierarchy. The term “subaltern” was originally used by the Italian Marxist thinker Antonio Gramsci to refer to groups that are excluded from dominant structures of political, economic, and cultural power.

In the Indian context, the Subaltern Studies tradition emerged during the 1980s under the leadership of Ranajit Guha and a group of historians who challenged conventional historical writings. They argued that much of Indian history had been written from the perspectives of colonial rulers or national elites, while the experiences, struggles, and contributions of peasants, workers, tribal communities, lower castes, women, and other marginalized groups were often ignored.

The subaltern perspective is frequently described as “history from below” because it shifts attention away from kings, political leaders, administrators, and elite groups and focuses instead on the lives and actions of common people. It examines how marginalized communities resist domination, participate in social movements, and shape historical processes. This approach emphasizes the agency of ordinary people rather than treating them merely as passive recipients of social change.

Option (A) is incorrect because the subaltern perspective explicitly rejects an elite-centered approach to history and society. Option (B) is unrelated to the concept, as the subaltern perspective is not specifically concerned with changes in developed countries. Option (D) is also incorrect because the subaltern approach is not primarily a study of postmodern societies, although some scholars have drawn connections between subaltern studies and postcolonial theory.

The subaltern perspective has had a major influence on sociology, history, anthropology, and postcolonial studies by encouraging scholars to examine the experiences of marginalized populations and to recognize their role in shaping social and historical change. The defining feature of this approach is its focus on history from below, making Option (C) the correct answer.

7. Assertion (A): Sense of alienation is increasing among Dalits.
Reason (R): Atrocities have increased in recent years on Dalits. (JUNE 2014)

(A) (A) is true and (R) is false
(B) (A) is false and (R) is true
(C) Both (A) and (R) are false
(D) Both (A) and (R) are true

Correct Answer: (D) Both (A) and (R) are true

The Assertion (A) is considered true because many sociological studies have pointed to the persistence of social exclusion, discrimination, unequal access to resources, and barriers to social mobility experienced by Dalits in different spheres of life. Although constitutional safeguards, affirmative action policies, and legal protections have improved opportunities for many Dalits, experiences of exclusion and unequal treatment continue to exist in various forms. Such conditions can contribute to a growing sense of alienation, marginalization, and detachment from dominant social institutions and structures.

The Reason (R) is also true. Reports and studies concerning atrocities against Dalits have highlighted the continued occurrence of caste-based violence, discrimination, social boycotts, and other forms of oppression in several parts of India. The existence of legal measures such as the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989 itself reflects the recognition of caste-based crimes as a serious social issue. Incidents of violence and discrimination often receive increased public attention due to greater media coverage, improved reporting mechanisms, and heightened awareness of rights among marginalized communities.

From a sociological perspective, the concept of alienation refers to feelings of powerlessness, isolation, and exclusion from the social order. Thinkers such as Karl Marx used the concept to explain estrangement from social and economic structures, while contemporary sociologists apply it more broadly to situations where groups feel excluded from full participation in society. Persistent caste discrimination and atrocities can reinforce such feelings among marginalized communities.

The relationship between the two statements is also meaningful. Experiences of discrimination, violence, and social exclusion can contribute to a stronger sense of alienation among Dalits. The issue is closely connected to broader themes of social stratification, caste inequality, social justice, and human rights in Indian society. For this reason, both the Assertion and the Reason are regarded as true, making Option (D) the correct answer.

8. Which is not a form of social stratification? (JUNE 2014)

(A) Religion
(B) Class
(C) Caste
(D) Gender

Correct Answer: (A) Religion

Social stratification refers to the structured system of inequality through which individuals and groups are ranked in a hierarchy based on access to resources, power, prestige, and opportunities. Sociologists generally identify class, caste, and gender as important bases or forms of stratification because they create relatively stable patterns of social inequality and differential life chances.

Class stratification is based primarily on economic factors such as income, wealth, occupation, and ownership of resources. It is a prominent feature of modern industrial societies and is associated with varying levels of social status and access to opportunities. Sociologists such as Karl Marx and Max Weber extensively analyzed class as a major dimension of social inequality.

Caste stratification is a hereditary and hierarchical system in which social status is determined by birth. It is traditionally associated with Indian society and is characterized by endogamy, occupational specialization, and restrictions on social interaction. The caste system represents one of the most rigid forms of stratification because social mobility is highly limited.

Gender stratification refers to the unequal distribution of power, prestige, resources, and opportunities between men and women. It is a universal form of social inequality found in varying degrees across societies and is a major concern of contemporary sociological and feminist analyses.

Religion, although it can influence social status, identity, and group relations, is not generally classified as a standard form of social stratification in the same way as class, caste, or gender. Religious affiliation may sometimes contribute to social differentiation or inequality, but religion itself is primarily a social institution rather than a recognized form of stratification. Sociological textbooks and theoretical discussions typically identify class, caste, race, ethnicity, and gender as major forms or bases of stratification.

For this reason, among the given options, Religion is considered not a form of social stratification, making Option (A) the correct answer.

9. Assertion (A): Gender roles are culturally influenced rather than biologically determined.
Reason (R): Cultural conception of gender divides human qualities into masculine and feminine spheres. (JUNE 2014)

(A) (A) is true, but (R) is false
(B) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the correct explanation of (A)
(C) (A) is false, but (R) is true and (R) is the correct explanation of (A)
(D) Both (A) and (R) are false

Correct Answer: (B) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the correct explanation of (A)

The Assertion (A) is true because sociologists distinguish between sex and gender. Sex refers to biological differences between males and females, whereas gender refers to socially and culturally constructed roles, expectations, behaviours, and identities associated with being male or female. Sociological research has consistently shown that gender roles vary across societies and historical periods, indicating that they are shaped more by culture and socialization than by biological factors alone.

The Reason (R) is also true. Every society develops cultural ideas about what qualities, behaviours, responsibilities, and characteristics are considered appropriate for men and women. These cultural conceptions divide human attributes into masculine and feminine spheres. Traits such as strength, leadership, and assertiveness are often associated with masculinity, while qualities such as nurturing, care, and emotional sensitivity are frequently linked to femininity. These associations are not universal biological facts but are largely products of social and cultural processes.

The reason correctly explains the assertion because gender roles emerge from these culturally defined expectations. Individuals learn gender roles through the process of socialization, beginning within the family and continuing through schools, peer groups, religion, media, and other social institutions. As a result, people come to internalize the norms and values associated with masculinity and femininity in their particular society.

Sociologists and feminist scholars such as Ann Oakley have emphasized that gender is a social construction rather than a direct outcome of biology. Cross-cultural studies demonstrate considerable variation in gender expectations, further supporting the argument that gender roles are culturally produced. What is considered masculine or feminine in one society may differ significantly from what is considered appropriate in another, highlighting the role of culture in shaping gender identities and social behaviour.

Since both the Assertion and the Reason are true, and the Reason directly explains why gender roles are culturally influenced rather than biologically determined, Option (B) is the correct answer.

10. Who among the following is a critic of Kingsley Davis’ theory of social stratification? (DEC 2014)

(A) Louis Dumont
(B) M.M. Tumin
(C) Robert Merton
(D) Talcott Parsons

Correct Answer: (B) M.M. Tumin

M.M. Tumin is best known as a major critic of the Davis–Moore theory of social stratification, which was developed by Kingsley Davis and Wilbert E. Moore. Davis and Moore argued that social stratification is universal and functionally necessary because societies must ensure that the most important positions are occupied by the most qualified individuals. According to them, unequal rewards such as income, prestige, and power motivate talented people to undergo training and perform essential social roles.

Tumin challenged this functionalist explanation in his influential article “Some Principles of Stratification: A Critical Analysis” (1953). He questioned the assumption that social stratification is always beneficial for society. Tumin argued that it is difficult to objectively determine which positions are truly more important than others and whether higher rewards accurately reflect their importance. He pointed out that many socially valuable occupations do not necessarily receive the highest rewards.

Another major criticism offered by Tumin was that stratification can actually hinder the discovery and development of talent. Individuals from disadvantaged social backgrounds may lack access to quality education, resources, and opportunities, regardless of their abilities. As a result, unequal social structures may prevent capable individuals from achieving positions that match their potential. Tumin also argued that excessive inequality can create social tensions, resentment, and conflict rather than contributing to social integration and efficiency.

The other scholars listed in the options are associated with different theoretical contributions. Louis Dumont is known for his analysis of the caste system and the concept of purity and pollution. Robert K. Merton developed theories related to middle-range sociology, manifest and latent functions, and anomie, while Talcott Parsons was a leading functionalist sociologist whose ideas were broadly compatible with the functionalist perspective on social order.

Tumin’s critique remains one of the most significant responses to the functional theory of stratification and is frequently discussed in sociology as a classic challenge to the arguments advanced by Kingsley Davis and Wilbert E. Moore regarding the necessity and desirability of social inequality.