Introduction

• Sociology is a social science that seeks to explain and understand human behaviour in society, studying a vast range of topics such as shopping, popular music, sexuality, poverty, drug use, law, war, religion, migration, and murder.
• Sociology is defined by its approach to understanding social life, rather than just the subject matter it covers.
• Unlike psychology, sociology is less concerned with the individual and more with humans in groups.
• Sociological studies can range from small groups (e.g., delinquent gangs) to whole societies (e.g., British society or Sioux Indians).
• Sociology looks at human behaviour beyond individual mental states, understanding it in relation to the wider social context.
• Examples of sociological studies explain seemingly individual behaviours (e.g., depression, suicide, and murder) using social factors.
• In the 1970s and 1980s, a study by Brown and Harris found that depression among women in London was linked to stressful life events like losing a job, eviction, or poverty.
• The study showed that income and class directly influenced the likelihood of experiencing such stressful events.
• Lower income and social class women had less supportive social networks and were more likely to suffer from depression.
• Emile Durkheim‘s 1897 study on suicide showed that suicide rates vary by country and social groups, with England having a higher rate than France.
• Durkheim found that social integration (e.g., married people, religious community) lowered suicide rates.
• He concluded that suicide, though individual, is influenced by social factors like social ties and community involvement.
• Murder (homicide) is also strongly influenced by social factors rather than individual characteristics.
• Homicide rates vary greatly across countries: for example, Honduras had a rate of 91.6 while Iceland had 0.3.
• James Gilligan (2001) linked high inequality to higher homicide rates, with shame being a factor in violence and murder.
• The UNODC report showed that inequality leads to higher homicide rates, with countries of low human development and high income inequality suffering from much higher rates.
• Syria’s homicide rate during the civil war (starting in 2011) is difficult to measure, but sociologists would look at social factors like the Arab Spring and the causes of conflict in Syria.
• Psychological explanations for homicide are not sufficient, as few homicides are committed by mentally disturbed offenders.
• In England and Wales in 2002/3, only 41 out of 1,007 homicides involved a mentally disturbed suspect.
• Sociological data reveals that men are more likely to commit murder than women, that most murderers are from lower social classes, and that minority ethnic groups are more likely to be homicide victims. Elderly people are rarely murderers.

Culture, Inequality and Society

Culture and Socialisation: Norms, Subcultures and Identity

• Sociology requires understanding the social context in which human behaviour occurs, especially through the lens of culture.
• A newborn infant is physically dependent, lacks behaviour patterns, and relies on biological drives (e.g., hunger) and elders for survival.
• To survive, the infant must learn the culture of its society, including skills, knowledge, and acceptable behaviours.
• Ralph Linton (1945) defined culture as the way of life of a society’s members, a collection of ideas and habits passed from generation to generation.
• Clyde Kluckhohn (1951) described culture as a design for living held by a society.
• Culture shapes how people think, feel, and act, directing their actions and defining their outlook on life.
• Culture defines accepted behaviours, which vary between societies, leading to potential misunderstandings across cultures.
• Example: Among the Sioux Indians of South Dakota, answering a question in front of others is seen as boastful and arrogant, while a white American teacher might interpret it as ignorance.
• The process by which individuals learn the culture of their society is called socialisation.
• Primary socialisation occurs during infancy, usually within the family, where children learn language and basic behaviour patterns by copying parents.
• Other important agencies of socialisation in Western society include education, religion, mass media, occupational groups, and peer groups.
• Socialisation is a lifelong process that continues as people change roles, jobs, or society changes.
• Socialisation teaches individuals the norms (informal rules) that govern appropriate behaviour in particular situations (e.g., dress norms for different occasions).
• Norms vary between societies (e.g., Bushmen of the Kalahari wear loincloths, which wouldn’t be appropriate in Britain).
• Culture and norms also change over time due to factors like new technology, leading to new ways of behaving (e.g., text messaging culture).
• Rich Ling (1997) studied Norwegian teenagers’ mobile phone use, finding that they had developed their own norms about appropriate phone use, disapproving of loud or ostentatious use in public.
• Most societies are pluralistic, containing people from different cultural backgrounds due to migration and global movements.
• Subcultures are social groups within a society that have lifestyles distinct from the dominant culture.
• Examples of youth subcultures include goths, moshers, and punks, who have unique clothing, music tastes, but share commonalities with mainstream society.
• Subcultures are influenced by major social divisions such as gender, ethnic groups, and social classes, which shape cultural differences.
• Culture and subcultures are key sources of social identity, defining who we are and how we relate to others (Jenkins, 1996).
• People often identify with those similar to themselves and tend to associate with their own cultural group, even when living outside their country of origin.
• Example: Some British people in Spain maintain connections with other Britons rather than integrating with the local Spanish population, identifying as British.
• Subcultures provide an important source of social identity. Goths see themselves as a distinct group and often associate more with fellow goths than with peers from other subcultures.

Inequality and Social Divisions

• Youth subcultures are influenced by various social divisions within society, which also contribute to inequality and differences in identity.
• Inequality arises due to competition for scarce resources, such as food and housing. Some groups are more successful in gaining access to these resources, leading to inequality.
• Two main types of inequality in Western capitalist societies:
  • Inequality of power: Ability to get what one wants regardless of others’ wishes (e.g., president vs. ordinary citizen).
  • Material inequality: Unequal access to wealth and income (e.g., Bill Gates vs. an impoverished laborer).
• Social divisions are defined as substantial differences between groups in society. One group often has more power and resources than the other, leading to distinct identities, lifestyles, and subcultures.
• Important social divisions in society:
  1. Social class divisions: Result from economic inequality, with distinctions between upper class, middle class, and working class. This produces subcultural differences in leisure activities, accent, clothing, etc.
  2. Gender divisions: Differences and inequalities between men and women, including economic disparities (e.g., men earning more than women) and differences in roles (e.g., women doing the majority of caring work). Feminist theories highlight these divisions.
  3. Ethnic divisions: Cultural differences between groups with a common origin, such as differences in marriage, clothing, language, and religion. Ethnicity is linked to inequality (e.g., black Americans having lower living standards than white Americans).
  4. Age divisions: Differences between age groups, with elders having higher status in traditional societies (e.g., Pomo Indians). In modern societies, the elderly and children tend to have low status and power.
• Other significant divisions include religious differences, divisions between the disabled and the able-bodied, and differences in sexuality (e.g., heterosexual, homosexual, and bisexual).
• These social divisions are central themes in sociology and are crucial in understanding social change and the development of societies.

The Development of Human Societies

• Some sociologists believe human societies have passed through certain broad phases of development.
• Many sociologists distinguish between premodern and modern societies, though the distinction is general and may overlook differences within each type.
• The distinction between premodern and modern societies is influential and useful because it helps sociologists identify key changes in human history.
• These changes have been analyzed to discuss their significance in society.
• Some sociologists argue that a new type of society, the postmodern society, has recently developed or is developing.
• This section introduces the main ideas related to the distinctions between premodern, modern, and postmodernsocieties.
• These concepts are crucial in the development of sociological thinking and will be explored in detail throughout the book.

Premodern Societies

• Premodern societies took various forms, with Anthony Giddens distinguishing three main types: hunting and gathering societies, pastoral and agrarian societies, and non-industrial civilizations.

Hunting and gathering societies

• Survived by gathering fruit, nuts, vegetables, and hunting or trapping animals for food.
• Small tribal groups, often with fewer than 50 people.
• Few possessions and little material wealth; possessions shared among members.
• Minimal inequality, although elders may have had more status and influence.
• Nearly disappeared, but around 250,000 people still live this way, mainly in parts of Africa, New Guinea, and Brazil.

Pastoral and agrarian societies

• Emerged around 20,000 years ago.
• Pastoral societies:
  • Hunt, gather, and herd animals (e.g., cattle, camels, horses).
  • Wealth accumulation possible through herding.
  • More inequality than hunting and gathering societies.
  • Often nomadic, moving to find pasture for animals, leading to contact with other groups.
  • Larger than hunting and gathering societies, with populations up to 250,000.
  • Still exist in parts of the Middle East, Africa, and Asia.
• Agrarian societies:
  • Rely on crop cultivation for food.
  • Provide a more reliable and predictable food source than hunting and gathering.
  • Can support much larger populations, often non-nomadic.
  • Wealth accumulation possible through food storage and land.
  • Can have significant inequality.
  • Agriculture remains the primary livelihood in many parts of the world today, with Rwanda, Uganda, and Ethiopia having high percentages of their populations working in agriculture.
  • Contemporary agrarian societies influenced by modern industrial societies.

Non-industrial civilizations

• Developed around 6000 BC.
• Based on the development of cities and characterized by pronounced inequalities of wealth and power.
• Associated with the rule of kings and emperors.
• More developed in art, science, and had institutionalized government systems.
• Writing was invented.
• Expanded into empires, including the Aztecs, Maya, Incas, Ancient Greece, Roman Empire, Ancient Egypt, and Indian and Chinese civilizations.
• Had substantial armed forces, with some civilizations managing military conquests.
• These civilizations did not survive indefinitely, and none exists today.
• Modern industrial societies, emerging in the 18th and 19th centuries, had a larger impact on the development of human society than these civilizations.

Modern Industrial Societies

• Lee and Newby (1983) argue that in the early 19th century, there was widespread agreement that Northern Europeand North America were undergoing profound societal transformations.

• They identify four main transformations:

  1. Industrialism:
     • The Industrial Revolution (late 18th century) shifted economies from agriculture-based to manufacturing-based.
     • New technology increased productivity, starting with the cotton industry and spreading to others.
     • An increasingly specialized division of labour developed; people had more specialist jobs.
     • Social life shifted from being governed by natural rhythms to being based on the clock, with long shifts in factories.
  2. Capitalism:
     • Capitalism developed alongside industrialism, characterized by wage labour and businesses focused on profit-making.
     • Many peasants lost their land and became wage labourers in factories.
     • New social classes emerged: entrepreneurs (who set up businesses) and the working class (wage labourers).
  3. Urbanism:
     • There was a massive migration from rural to urban areas as industrial development grew.
     • In 1750, only two cities in Britain had populations over 50,000, but by 1851, 29 cities had such populations.
     • Urban growth led to social problems such as crime, riots, and health issues from overcrowding and poor sanitation.
     • The traditional sense of community associated with rural villages was undermined.
  4. Liberal democracy:
     • Before the 18th and 19th centuries, monarchs’ right to rule was rarely questioned.
     • Events like the French Revolution (1789) and the American War of Independence (1775-83) overthrew monarchies.
     • These events emphasized citizenship rights, allowing individuals to have a say in governance and paving the way for political parties and new societal debates.

• Modernity is the term often used to describe the societal changes above.

• Modernity involves several concepts:

  • A belief in human progress.
  • Rational planning to achieve goals.
  • A belief in the superiority of rational thought over emotion.
  • Faith in technology and science to solve human problems.
  • Belief in human rights and the ability to shape lives.
  • Reliance on manufacturing industry to improve living standards.

• Sociology developed alongside modernity, with early sociological theories reflecting similar beliefs:

  • The belief that societies could progress.
  • The use of scientific principles to understand society.
  • A reliance on rational thought to organize society for human needs.

• Some thinkers believe modernity is being replaced by postmodernity.

Postmodernity

• Some sociologists argue that fundamental changes have occurred in Western societies in recent years.
• These changes suggest a major break with the old concept of modernity.
• People are losing faith in the ability of science and technology to solve human problems.
• Examples include awareness of the damaging effects of pollution, dangers of nuclear war, and risks of genetic engineering.
• Skepticism has grown about the benefits of rational planning.
• Many doubt that large, rational, bureaucratic organizations (e.g., big companies, British National Health Service) can meet human needs.
• People have lost faith in political beliefs and grand theories that claim to improve society.
• Few now believe that communism can lead to a perfect society.
• The modern belief in progress has been undermined, leading to a movement away from science and rationalism.
• Some people turn to non-rational beliefs such as New Age philosophies and religious cults as a reaction against scientific rationalism.
• Postmodernists link these changes to shifts in the economy.
• Post-industrial society has replaced industrial society.
• Fewer people in Western societies now work in manufacturing; more work in services, particularly in communications and information technology.
• Computer technology has reduced the number of people needed in manufacturing, and communications have become faster.
• In affluent Western countries, people are spending a higher proportion of income on leisure.
• When purchasing products, people often prioritize image over quality and usefulness (e.g., paying high prices for designer label clothes).
• The media has become more important in people’s lives and the economy.
• Some sociologists question whether these changes are significant enough to justify the claim that society has shifted from modern to postmodern.
• Others believe these changes are substantial enough to require new theories of society.

Theories of Society

Functionalism

• Functionalism emerged in 19th-century Europe, with Emile Durkheim as the most influential early functionalist.
• Talcott Parsons and other American sociologists developed the theory in the 20th century, making it dominant in the 1940s and 1950s in the USA.
• Functionalism’s popularity declined from the 1960s due to criticism, competing perspectives, and changes in fashion.
• Functionalism compares society to a biological organism: the different parts work together to maintain the system.
• To understand any part of society, such as the family or religion, it must be examined in relation to society as a whole.
• Behaviour in society is structured by rules (formal laws and informal norms).
• Norms are specific guidelines for behaviour, such as how to act at a funeral or party.
• Values provide general guidelines for behaviour, such as honesty, privacy, ambition, and individual achievement in Western societies.
• Norms are linked to roles in society (e.g., lecturer, student, doctor), where each role has expectations of behaviour.
• The structure of society is the sum of normative behaviour governed by norms and social relationships.
• Major societal parts or institutions (e.g., family, economy, political systems) are interrelated structures made of interconnected roles or norms.
• Functionalism examines how parts of the social structure function in relation to the whole society.
• Function refers to the effect of an institution on the social structure and its contribution to maintaining the social system.
• For example, the family’s function is the socialisation of new members, contributing to order, stability, and cooperation.
• Functional prerequisites are basic needs that societies must meet to survive (e.g., food, shelter, socialisation).
• The economic system provides food and shelter, and the family socialises new members to ensure societal survival.
• Value consensus integrates society’s parts by aligning them with shared values that guide societal functions.
• Materialism is an example of a value that integrates the economic, educational, family, and political systems in Western industrial societies.
• Social order is crucial for the survival of social systems, and shared values are key to its maintenance.
• Value consensus forms the basis of social solidarity, where individuals identify and cooperate with those who share their values.
• Socialisation ensures values are passed from one generation to the next, making value consensus stable.
• The family plays a key role in transmitting values.
• Mechanisms of social control are necessary to maintain order and ensure those deviating from societal values conform.

Conflict Perspectives

• Functionalists recognise that conflict can occur but see it as a result of temporary disturbances in the social system.
• These disturbances are believed to be quickly corrected as society evolves.
• Functionalists acknowledge that social groups can have differences of interest, but they consider these differences to be of minor importance compared to shared interests.
• They argue that all social groups benefit when society runs smoothly and prospers.
• Conflict theories differ from functionalism by arguing that there are fundamental differences of interest between social groups.
• These differences lead to conflict being a common and persistent feature of society, not just a temporary issue.
• There are multiple conflict perspectives, with supporters often disagreeing about the nature, causes, and extent of conflict.

Marxism

• Marxist theory offers a radical alternative to functionalism and became influential in sociology during the 1970s due to the decline of functionalism and its ability to address issues functionalism couldn’t.
• Marxism is based on the works of Karl Marx, who focused on contradictions and conflict in society.
• Contradiction arises as humans must produce food and material goods, leading to social relationships.
• The forces of production (technology, raw materials, scientific knowledge) correspond to specific social relationships of production.
• The combination of forces and relations of production forms the economic basis (infrastructure) of society, influencing the superstructure (political, legal, educational systems, and beliefs).
• Contradictions in society arise from exploitation, e.g., lords exploiting serfs in feudal society and capitalists exploiting workers in capitalist society.
• Conflict between social groups is a fundamental part of society, as one group benefits at the expense of another.
• Relations of production include social relationships such as employer-employee in capitalism, with means of production being owned by the capitalists.
• In capitalist society, wealth is produced by labour, but much of it is appropriated by capitalists through profits.
• Exploitation occurs as workers receive less in wages than the wealth they produce.
• The contradiction in capitalism is between collective production and private ownership of the means of production.
• Marx argued that capitalism’s inherent contradictions would lead to its downfall, with exploitation and oppression of workers.
• Historical change occurs due to new forces of production, e.g., the transition from feudalism to capitalism.
• Communist society will resolve the contradictions of capitalism, transforming ownership to collective control of the means of production.
• Marx saw ideology and false consciousness as key to capitalism’s survival, as the ruling class uses ideas to justify their power.
• Ruling-class ideology distorts reality, making the exploited accept their oppressed position as natural and normal.
• Ideology serves to hide the contradictions of the capitalist system and maintain the status quo.
• Marx believed that capitalism was a necessary step toward communism, with technology developed under capitalism eventually enabling a society where all needs are met.
• Despite its critique of capitalism, Marxism shares with functionalism the belief that societies improve through rational and scientific thinking.

Feminism

• Feminism shares some similarities with Marxism, but focuses on the division between men and women rather than between social classes.
• Feminists view society as being divided by exploitation, but their focus is on the exploitation of women by men, rather than class-based exploitation.
• Patriarchy is a key concept for many feminists, who argue that men dominate society, holding more power in families, having better-paid jobs, and monopolising political power.
• The ultimate aim of feminist movements is to end men’s domination and eliminate the exploitation of women.
• Feminists offer different explanations and solutions for the exploitation of women but believe in the possibility of societal progress toward improvement.
• Difference feminists argue that not all women are equally oppressed and disadvantaged, highlighting the importance of considering the different experiences of women across age, class, and ethnicity.
• These feminists argue that the oppression of women varies, e.g., a wealthy white woman and a poor black woman in Africa experience different forms of oppression and require different solutions.
• Feminists agree that sociology has largely neglected women, especially until the 1970s, when most sociological studies were written by men about men.
• Malestream sociology is a term feminists use to criticise male-dominated mainstream sociology, focusing on what male sociologists study and their research methods.
• Feminist scholars suggest that feminist sociology should avoid rigid scientific methods and adopt more sympathetic approaches, working in partnership with the people studied instead of treating them as passive data providers.
• As feminist scholarship has evolved, it has explored numerous aspects of social life from a feminist perspective, with further studies to be examined in later chapters.

Interactionism

• Functionalism and Marxism share several characteristics: both provide a general explanation of society, known as macro theories, and view society as a system, often referred to as system theories.
• Both theories see human behaviour as shaped by the system: in functionalism, behaviour is directed by norms and values, while in Marxism, behaviour is determined by the economic infrastructure.
• Some feminist theories are similar, explaining behaviour in terms of a patriarchal system.
• Interactionism differs from functionalism, Marxism, and most feminist theories by focusing on small-scale interaction rather than society as a whole, rejecting the notion of a social system.
• Interactionists argue that improvements in society are possible but should occur on a smaller scale and in a more piecemeal way than in macro theories.
• Interactionism is concerned with interaction, particularly the meaningful action between individuals. It seeks to understand the process by which action is given meaning.
• Meaning in interaction depends on the context. For example, the act of lighting a candle can have various meanings, depending on the situation, such as creating light, ritual significance, intimacy, or celebration.
• Meanings are not fixed; they evolve based on the interaction process. For example, a pupil entering a new class may initially perceive the situation as threatening, but this can change through interaction with others.
• Self-concept is important in interactionism; individuals develop a self-image based on how they perceive others see them. This is known as the looking glass self, coined by Charles Cooley.
• An individual’s actions are influenced by their self-concept. For example, if a person is viewed as disreputable or respectable, they will act accordingly.
• The construction of meaning in interaction is crucial. Interactionists analyze how definitions of individuals and situations are created through language, gestures, appearance, and context.
• The definition of an individual as a delinquent depends on the context. For example, a police officer may define a young person as a delinquent based on their appearance, manner, and speech.
• Definitions of individuals are constructed through a negotiation process. For example, young people may convince the police that their actions were not delinquent, thus shaping their own definition in the situation.
• Negotiation applies to roles as well. Interactionists believe roles are not fixed but are ambiguous and negotiated in interaction.
• Unlike functionalists, interactionists argue that roles are not strictly defined and allow for improvisation and creative action. For example, the roles of husband and wife in marriage are negotiated and constantly evolving.
• Roles in interactionism are seen as vague and open to negotiation, rather than fixed, allowing for flexibility in how they are enacted.

Postmodernism

• Since the 1980s, postmodern perspectives have gained influence in sociology, challenging previous perspectives like Marxism, functionalism, feminism, and interactionism.
• Some postmodern theorists describe and explain the crucial changes in society but retain elements of conventional sociological approaches, such as believing human behaviour and societal changes can still be explained through sociological theories.
• Other postmodernists argue that conventional modern approaches must be abandoned, as they no longer suit the postmodern era.
• Postmodernists claim that social behaviour is no longer shaped by factors like class, gender, and ethnicity as much as before. Instead, individuals have more freedom to choose their identity and lifestyle.
• Boundaries between social groups are breaking down, and predicting lifestyles based on background is increasingly difficult. This challenges the relevance of many aspects of social life studied by modern sociologists.
• Some postmodernists question the foundation for producing knowledge about society, arguing that modern sociologists wrongly believed they could uncover truth by adopting methods of the physical sciences.
• From the postmodern perspective, all knowledge is subjective and based on language, which cannot perfectly describe the external world. Knowledge reflects personal viewpoints that can never be proven correct.
• Jean Baudrillard argues that the increasing saturation of media images makes it difficult to distinguish them from reality, leading people to confuse media characters with real-life people.
• Jean Francois Lyotard criticizes attempts to create a general theory of how society works (e.g., Marxism, functionalism), believing they cannot truly explain the complexity of social life. Such theories are often used to impose ideas on others, making them dangerous.
• Lyotard advocates for rejecting general theories in sociology.
• Many postmodernists emphasize differences between individuals rather than similarities within social groups, arguing that sociologists should uncover and describe these differences.
• Postmodernists believe all viewpoints on society are equally valid, and sociologists should not impose their own views but allow the voices of diverse individuals to be heard.
• This view contrasts with Marxists and functionalists, who aim to produce scientific explanations of society and group behaviour.

Human Behaviour and Sociological Research

Positivism

• Philosophical views of human behaviour influence the data sociologists collect and the methods they use to collect it.
• Views can be divided into those that emphasise external factors (society’s structure) and those that stress internal factors (individual feelings, meanings, motives).
• External factors are seen as objective, existing outside the individual’s consciousness. Internal factors focus on the individual’s interpretation of external influences.
• Most sociologists use both approaches in research and interpretation, with some variations within each approach.
• Positivism is the most influential attempt to apply natural science methodology to sociology.
• Auguste Comte, the founder of sociology, argued that applying the methods of natural sciences could produce a “positive science of society” revealing invariable laws of societal evolution.
• Positivism assumes human behaviour can be objectively measured, like the behaviour of matter in physical sciences.
• Objective measurement can be used to explain human behaviour in terms of cause and effect, similar to physical reactions in natural science.
• For positivists, behaviour that can be directly observed is important, while internal factors (such as meanings, feelings, and purposes) are not.
• Observable facts like marriage and childbearing are considered reliable data, but personal reasons behind these actions are not seen as important for explaining behaviour.
• Positivists argue that like the reaction of matter to external stimuli, human behaviour can be explained by external factors without needing to consider individual meanings.
• For example, people enter marriage and have children in response to societal requirements for its survival, not based on individual motivations or meanings.
• Systems theory in sociology is often linked to positivism, seeing behaviour as a reaction to external stimuli (e.g., economic forces or social system requirements).
• Marxism and functionalism are sometimes seen as positivist, as they explain human behaviour as a reaction to economic infrastructure or social system needs.
• Systems theory oversimplifies these approaches, but it is generally closer to positivism than other theories.

Social Action Perspectives

• Advocates of social action perspectives argue that the social and natural sciences are fundamentally different.
• Methods of the natural sciences are inappropriate for studying humans because they deal with matter, which lacks consciousness, meanings, and purposes.
• Matter reacts unconsciously to external stimuli, and scientists observe, measure, and impose an external logic to explain this behaviour.
• Unlike matter, humans have consciousness — thoughts, feelings, meanings, intentions, and awareness of being.
• Human actions are meaningful: humans define situations and give meaning to their actions and those of others, meaning they act rather than just react.
• Example: Early humans did not simply react to fire, but attached various meanings to it (warmth, defense, cooking), which guided their actions.
• If human action stems from subjective meanings, sociologists must discover these meanings to understand the action.
• Sociologists cannot just observe action externally and impose logic; they must interpret the internal logic that directs actions.
• Max Weber argued that sociological explanations should begin with observing and interpreting the subjective states of mind of people.
• Interactionism emphasizes interpreting actions through insight and understanding rather than observing facts and cause-and-effect relationships.
• Objective measurement is not possible in social action, and exactitude of the natural sciences cannot be replicated in sociology.
• Since meanings are negotiated in ongoing interaction, it’s impossible to establish simple cause-and-effect relationships in social action.
• Some sociologists believe sociology is limited to an interpretation of social action rather than finding definitive causes.
• Phenomenologists take this further, arguing that it is impossible for sociologists to identify the causes of human action.

Phenomenology

• Phenomenologists argue that it is impossible to measure any aspect of human behaviour objectively.
• Humans make sense of the world by categorising it using language to distinguish between objects, events, actions, and people.
• Examples: Some actions are defined as criminal, while others are not; some people are defined as criminals and others as law-abiding.
• Categorisation is subjective and depends on the opinions of the observer.
• Statistics reflect the opinions of those who produce them (e.g., police and courts produce crime statistics).
• If sociologists produce their own statistics, these are also based on their subjective opinions.
• Phenomenologists believe it is impossible to produce factual data or check causal explanations.
• Sociologists can only aim to understand the meaning individuals give to phenomena.
• Phenomenologists don’t focus on causes of crime but on how certain events are defined as crimes and how people are labelled as criminals.
• They examine decisions made by police officers about arresting and charging suspects, to understand the meanings attached to the terms ‘crime’ and ‘criminal’.
• The outcome of phenomenological research is understanding the meanings people attach to everyday life events.
• Both social action theorists and phenomenologists agree that the positivist approach distorts the picture of social life.
• Peter Berger (1966) criticized the view of society as a puppet theatre, where individuals are passive and controlled by external forces.
• Interactionists and phenomenologists see humans as actively creating their own meanings and society through interaction with others.
• Their views are similar to some postmodern approaches, which also reject passive reactions to society.

Sociology and Values

• Positivist approach assumes that a science of society is possible, with objective observation and analysis.
• Objective view: Free from values, moral judgements, and ideology, providing facts and explanatory frameworks.
• Increasing number of sociologists argue that a value-free science of society is impossible, as sociologists’ valuesdirectly influence their research.
• Sociological perspectives are influenced by historical circumstances and ideological positions, not objective views of reality.
• Ideology: A set of ideas that presents a partial view of reality and includes values, suggesting a distorted picture of reality.
• Reality and ideology may be inseparable; Nigel Harris (1971) stated, “Our reality is the next man’s ideology.”
• Ideology expresses the interests of a social group; Marxists refer to it as the ideology of the ruling class, which justifies and legitimates their position.
• Karl Mannheim (1948) defines ideology as beliefs and values of a ruling group, obscuring reality and stabilizing the status quo.
• Utopian ideologies: Advocate a complete change in society, often from oppressed groups seeking radical change.
• Mannheim views utopian ideologies as “wish-images” for a perfect society, which also distort reality.
• Marxism: Seen as based on a utopian ideology, with the communist utopia as an ideal society; it condemns current social arrangements that fall short of this ideal.
• Functionalism: Seen as based on a ruling-class ideology, justifying and legitimating the status quo by emphasizing order, stability, and consensus.
• Functionalism emphasizes positive functions and beneficial effects of social institutions, legitimating the current social order.
• Dysfunction is rarely discussed in functionalism, reinforcing the idea of useful and good functions.
• Interpretation of Marxism and functionalism’s ideological bases is debatable, but both can be seen as ideologically based.
• Postmodernists reject any attempt to produce a unified theory of society, seeing such theories as dangerous because they can lead to one group imposing its will on others.
• Postmodernists believe that sociologists should accept a range of values and tolerate differences, rather than trying to remove values from sociology.
• Critical social scientists argue that sociologists should not accept all values, but work to improve society by fighting injustice.
• Rejecting a stance on values would mean accepting harmful actions (e.g., rape, racism, exploitation) as equal to efforts to combat them.
• C. Wright Mills, an American sociologist, supports the idea that sociologists should use their work to improve society and fight injustice.

The Sociological Imagination

• Sociologists vary in their perspectives, methods, and values, but they share the goal of understanding and explainingthe social world.
• Combining insights from different approaches might be the best way to achieve this goal.
• Structural theories (e.g., functionalism, Marxism) emphasize the importance of society in shaping human behaviour.
• Interactionism emphasizes the importance of human behaviour in shaping society.
• Many sociologists today believe good sociology must examine both the structure of society and social interaction.
• By combining the study of major changes in society and individual lives, sociologists can develop a deeper understanding of social life.
• This idea was supported by Max Weber (1864-1920) and explored in depth by Anthony Giddens.
• C. Wright Mills, an American sociologist, presented a clear exposition of this view through the concept of the ‘sociological imagination’ (1959).
• The sociological imagination helps people understand their ‘private troubles’ in terms of ‘public issues’.
• Personal experiences like unemployment, war, and marital breakdown are viewed in terms of individual struggles but have broader societal consequences.
• Sociological understanding of these issues requires considering wider social forces (e.g., economic and political institutions) rather than just individual situations.
• Sociology should examine biographies of individuals within the context of society’s history.
• The sociological imagination is not only useful to sociologists but is essential for all members of society who wish to understand, change, and improve their lives.
• Sociology can be seen as successful when it enables individuals to develop the sociological imagination.
• Theories and studies in sociology can be judged by their ability to promote and apply the sociological imagination.