Introduction

• During the Mughal period, a new class of historiography, known as official histories or namah, emerged in India under Persian influence.
• Akbar introduced the practice of commissioning officials or others to write the history of his empire, granting them access to state records for this purpose.
• This practice continued until the reign of Aurangzeb, who stopped it in his eleventh regnal year.
• In addition to official histories, biographical works of great historical interest were also produced during this period.
• The historians of this period were not entirely dependent on chroniclers; some contemporary independent historians also contributed.
• The historians of the Mughal period did not develop a specific philosophy of history from which lessons could be drawn, and they focused mainly on political history, neglecting cultural, religious, and social aspects.
• Mughal historians differed from those of the Sultanate period in terms of social status, class, outlook, style, and approach.
• The element of personal gain or reward that was prominent in the Sultanate period was less noticeable in Mughal historiography.
• A significant change in Mughal historiography was the secularization of history. While the divine element was still present, the humanistic aspect of history became more prominent.
• This chapter will discuss some of the prominent historians of the Mughal period and their contributions to medieval historiography.

Literature Sources

Zahir-Al-Din Muhammad (Babur) – Baburnama

• Baburnama, also known as Tuzk-e-Babri, refers to the memoirs of Zahir-ud-Din Muhammed Babur (1483-1530), the founder of the Moghul Empire and great-grandson of Timur.
• It is an autobiographical work originally written in Chagatai language, the spoken language of the Andijan-Timurids, referred to by Babur as “Turk” (meaning Turkic).
• Babur’s prose is heavily Persianised in sentence structure, morphology, and language, with many Persian phrases and smaller poems included.
• During Babur’s reign, the Baburnama was translated into Persian by a Moghul courtier, Abdul Rahim, in 1589-90.
• The Baburnama can be divided into three parts:
  • The first part covers Babur’s accession to the throne of Fargana and ends with his flight to India.
  • The second part provides a detailed account of his last invasion of India.
  • The third part focuses on his transactions in India.
• There are gaps in the memoirs, covering only 18 years of Babur’s 47-year life.
• In his memoirs, Babur gives detailed accounts of land, climate, vegetation, trade, industry, and the social and political conditions of the people.
• Babur praises India’s natural beauty, calling it a “remarkably fine country” with different hills, rivers, forests, animals, and plants compared to other countries.
• He mentions the economic prosperity and wealth of India, noting the abundance of gold and silver, and that food-grains, clothes, and merchandise were cheap and available in abundance.
• On political conditions, Babur states that India was divided into small kingdoms, with the Emperor of Delhi ruling most of Hindustan, while five Muslim Kings and two Hindu Kings ruled the hilly areas.
• Babur’s observations were keen, and his writing style was pleasant and forthright. He describes even the minutest details with meticulous care, making readers feel as if they were witnessing the events firsthand.
• Prof. Lanepool praises Babur’s honesty and competence as a chronicler, stating that his memoirs are sufficient proof even without other evidence.
• Prof. Elliot also considers Babur’s Memoirs to be one of the best and most faithful pieces of autobiography.
• Despite their usefulness, Babur’s memoirs are intertwined with his opinions, sentiments, judgments, and philosophy of life, which color his observations.
• Babur’s predilections influence his descriptions, making readers feel like they are experiencing the events from his perspective, moving with the speed of his life and stopping to reflect on his surroundings.
• Babur combined chronology with a deep understanding of geography, helping him assess the resources, climate, and habits of people in a given place.
• Due to its rich content, Babur’s Memoirs are considered priceless records of historical significance that remain valuable over time.

Ain – I-Akbari -Abul Fazl

• Ain-i-Akbari or the “Constitution of Akbar” is a 16th-century detailed document recording the administration of Emperor Akbar’s empire, written by Abul-Fazl ibn Mubarak.
• Ain-i-Akbari is the third volume of Akbarnama and contains information about Akbar’s reign in the form of an administration report, statistical compilation, and gazetteers.
• Abul-Fazl (1551–1602) belonged to a Hijazi Arab family, which migrated to Sindh and then settled at Nagor, near Ajmer.
• Abul-Fazl was well-educated by his father, Shaikh Mubarak, and earned a reputation as a deep and critical scholar.
• At the age of 20, Abul Fazl became a teacher and was introduced to the Royal Court in 1573, soon winning the trust of Akbar through his intellect, devotion, and loyalty.
• Abul Fazl rose to the position of Prime Minister and was also a statesman, diplomat, military general, and writer.
• His major contributions to medieval Indian historiography are his two works: Akbarnama and Ain-i-Akbari, which are crucial sources for the history of Akbar’s reign.
• Akbarnama was written by Abul Fazl at Akbar’s command, detailing the history of Akbar’s reign.
• Abul Fazl compiled material for Akbarnama from state records, narratives of contemporaries, and interviews with servants of the state and members of illustrious families.
• Abul Fazl devoted seven years to complete Akbarnama in 1596.
• Akbarnama consists of three volumes:
  • The first volume traces the history of the House of Timur up to the death of Humayun.
  • The second volume covers Akbar’s reign from 1556 to 1604.
  • The third volume, known as Ain-i-Akbari, provides information on the social and economic conditions of the Empire.
• Prof. V. A. Smith evaluates Akbarnama by noting its historical significance, despite its flaws, including tedious rhetoric and flattery towards Akbar. He acknowledges it as the foundation for the history of Akbar’s reign.
• Ain-i-Akbari, the third volume of Akbarnama, contains a detailed description of the empire and institutions under Akbar.
• Prof. Luniya states that Ain-i-Akbari is a mine of information on the rules, regulations, topography, revenue system, social habits, customs, and many other aspects of life in India under Akbar’s rule.
• Ain-i-Akbari is considered a highly valuable and important book for any historian of the Mughals.
• Ain-i-Akbari consists of five books, each dealing with a particular aspect, including:
  • Akbar’s household and court.
  • Military and civil services, along with their ranks.
  • Judicial and executive departments, along with their rules and regulations.
  • Details about the revenue system.
• In addition to Akbarnama and Ain-i-Akbari, Abul Fazl also translated the Hindu scripture Gita and published Mikhtabat-l-Abul Fazl, a collection of his official letters.

Tujuk – I – Jahangir

• Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri or Tuzuk Jahangiri is the autobiography of Moghul Emperor Jahangir (1569–1609), also referred to as Jahangir Nama.
• Written in Persian, it follows the tradition of his great-grandfather Babur.
• Jahangir expanded on the memoir tradition by including reflections on art, politics, and information about his family.
• The text covers the first nineteen years of his reign, but Jahangir stopped writing the memoirs in the seventeenth year of his reign.
• He entrusted the continuation of the memoirs to Mutamad Khan, author of Iqbal Nama, who continued it until the nineteenth year of Jahangir’s reign.
• After Mutamad Khan, Muhammad Hadi took over and continued the memoirs until Jahangir’s death.
• The memoirs form an important reference point for the era, alongside his father Akbar’s Akbarnama.
• The first printed version of Jahangirnama was published by Sayyid Ahmad in 1863 at Gazipur and 1864 at Aligarh.
• Jahangir’s autobiography reflects his royal ideology, providing his views on political, religious, and social issues.
• Within the memoir, Jahangir noted his local-level legislative policies for his vast empire, which included all of modern-day India.
• One key policy was the regulation of the jagirdars (holders of land grants), requiring them to use the land income to maintain troops and meet town needs.
• Jahangir attempted to prevent corruption within the Jagirdars by mandating part of the land income be used for hospitals, infirmaries, and religious buildings according to the local religion.
• He also regulated marriages by ordering Jagirdars to seek his approval before marrying someone from the area they ruled.
• Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri is a crucial source for studying Jahangir’s reign, detailing various riots, rebellions, wars, conquests, and official regulations.
• It also offers a candid account of Jahangir’s daily life.
• The memoirs provide a detailed account of the social, cultural, and spiritual life of the people during Jahangir’s reign.
• An outstanding quality of his memoirs is their frankness, including mentioning his involvement in the murder of Abul Fazl.
• However, there is no reference to his marriage to Nur Jahan in the memoirs.

Muhammad Hashim Alias Hashim Ali Khan – Muntakhab – ul – Lubab

• Kafi Khan, author of Muntakhab-ul-Lubab, belonged to a respectable family in Delhi; his father, Khwaja Mir, was a historian and officer in the service of Prince Murad Bakhsh and later Aurangzeb.
• Kafi Khan grew up in Aurangzeb’s service and was employed for political and military affairs.
• During the reign of Farrukh Siyar, Kafi Khan was made Diwan by Nizam-ul-Mulk.
• Muntakhab-ul-Lubab is a highly esteemed history, starting with the incursion of Babur and ending with the fourteenth year of Muhammad Shah’s reign.
• Since Aurangzeb prohibited the recording of events during his reign, Kafi Khan completed a minute register of the period’s happenings and published it after the emperor’s death.
• Kafi Khan’s work is important as it contains a detailed account of Aurangzeb’s reign.
• Kafi Khan was Shia, which influenced his bias toward Shia nobles in his work; he was prejudiced against Turani nobles, except for Nizam-ul-Mulk, whom he praised.
• Due to his partiality, Kafi Khan is sometimes nicknamed Nizam-ul-Mulki.
• Kafi Khan emphasized the importance of truthfulness in historical writing, stating that historians should rise above hope of reward and fear of harm.
• He traces the beginning of partiality in historical writings to Farrukh Siyar’s reign, when people manipulated the historical record to suit their interests.
• Kafi Khan criticized those who represented opposite groups’ virtues as vices and vice versa, reflecting personal or group biases.
• His historical approach was to begin from the establishment of the Mughal Empire and continue until the fourteenth regnal year of Muhammad Shah.
• Kafi Khan’s Muntakhab-ul-Lubab (also known as Tarikh-u-Khafi Khan) is a complete history from Muhammad’s conquest to the fourteenth year of Muhammad Shah’s reign (1733).
• Kafi Khan viewed history as a catalogue of events presented in chronological order and did not specifically analyze the role of the Mughal Emperor in the political disintegration and chaos.
• He explained the conflicts of the period primarily in terms of the conflict between Iranis (Shias) and Turanis (Sunnis), while Muhammad Qasim attributed it to the rise of a newly promoted class.
• Kafi Khan had divided loyalties, with strong ties to Nizam-ul-Mulk and Sayyid Brothers, due to shared religious affiliations.
• He justified the actions of the Sayyid Brothers and blamed the Turani Party.
• Kafi Khan discusses the estrangement between Nizam-ul-Mulk and Emperor Muhammad Shah, highlighting several key events:
  • News of political unrest in Persia and Muhammad Khan’s conquest, leading Nizam-ul-Mulk to suggest sending forces to help Shah of Persia, but his proposal was rejected.
  • He advised abolishing the Jagirdari system and revoking assignments in Khalisa, but the proposal was also rejected.
  • He suggested ending the practice of favourites accepting presents in his name, which was ignored.
  • He called for the reimposition of Jizya, but the emperor didn’t heed his advice.
• Kafi Khan makes a subtle attempt to justify the murder of Farrukh Siyar, presenting it as an inevitable culmination of the situation, where Farrukh Siyar attempted to escape prison by bribing his guards and seeking help from Raja Jai Singh Sawai.
• Regarding the deaths of Rafi-ud-Daula and Rafi-ud-Darjat, Kafi Khan claims they died of natural causes, while Muhammad Qasim argues they were victims of slow poisoning.
• Kafi Khan described the Sayyid Brothers’ motives for poisoning the princes as stemming from their inability to carry on administration, fearing disgrace.
• Kafi Khan devoted significant space to detailing wars and campaigns, following the traditional historical style, but did not suggest solutions for the Mughal political malaise.

Conclusion

• A survey of the works of historians from the Mughal period confirms the view of Prof. Jagdish Narayan Sarkar that they differ from Sultanate period writers in several aspects: social status, class, outlook, idiom, and approach.
• In the Mughal period, the element of personal gain, such as getting a reward or repaying a debt of gratitude, receded into the background or was less prominent than in the previous period.
• The most significant change in Mughal historiography was the secularization of history, which marked a departure from the more religiously focused writings of earlier periods.
• History in the Mughal age became more humanistic than divine, with a shift away from the didactic elements that were common in earlier historical writings.
• Historians in the Mughal period devoted more attention to events, the measures taken, and their effects, rather than offering general or vague moral warnings.

Maratha Sources

• Maratha sources are crucial for writing medieval history.
• In the 17th century, the Marathas began making history, but it took time for them to start writing history.
• Some Maratha families maintained records, and those who participated in events sketched their experiences in personal diaries.
• Many historical exploits were rendered into ballads, passed on from generation to generation.
• The Bakhars (Persian version of Marathi Chronicles) are a valuable source of historical material from the 17th to 19th century.
• Bakhars provide information about rulers, ministers, chieftains, saints, campaigns, but should be used carefully as they were written from memory after events took place.
• They have a dynamic style, focusing on pomp, pageantry, wars, and battles, with little about common people’s life, social, cultural, and economic aspects.
• Their chronology is faulty, language archaic, and genealogy questionable. They often trace lineage to Pandavas through Prithviraj Chauhan and Rajput kings.
• Good rulers like Shivaji are shown as incarnations of God, while bad rulers like Sambhaji are punished for ignoring dharma.
• Bakhars share many features with Persian chronicles, influenced by Muslim tradition of historical writing.
• These chronicles do not mention the English or French, nor the historical material like Ain-e-Akbari or personal diaries from the Mughal period.
• The period of Bakhars ended in 1818 when British supremacy was established over Maratha dominions.
• After 1818, a new form of historiography emerged. Maratha scholars began studying ancient Indian inscriptions.
• Grant Duff’s History of the Marathas (1826) had a significant impact, with Maratha translations and two editions.
• Macaulay’s introduction of English education and Wood’s Dispatch on educational reforms contributed to the serious study of history by Maratha scholars in the second half of the 19th century.
• In 1867, Kirtane challenged some views of Grant Duff in his publication.
• In 1878, a Marathi journal, Kavyetihas Samgraha Patra Yadi, published family accounts, chronology, and ballads, but it ended in 1890.
• The next significant step was taken by Rajwade, who collected and printed old papers, starting the age of document-based history.
• Rajwade’s efforts were challenging but rewarded with the publication of Ithasachi Sadhanen (Sources of Maratha History) and helped future generations of scholars.
• Vasudeo Shastri Kharii carried on critical scholarship, collecting and editing historical data, especially the Patwardhan Chiefs of Miroj records.
• Parasnis of Satara continued the work of Rajwade and Kharii, contributing to Maratha history with records of the Raja of Satara and Nana Phadnavis.
• Bharat Ithihas Samsodak Mandali, a research organization established in 1910, significantly contributed to Maratha historical research.
• The official Record Office, holding land settlement papers, became an important resource for scholars.
• Justice Ranade pressured the government to allow access to the Peshwa’s Rozkhirds (daily accounts), leading to the publication of 13 volumes.
• G.S. Sardesai dedicated his life to editing Peshwa Daftar records in 45 volumes, with over 200,000 documents published by 1960.
• Maharashtra remains the most richly documented region in India, and Maratha scholars continue to study and write Maratha history in earnest.

Archaeological Sources

Study of Inscription

• Archaeological sources of the Moghul period can be divided into inscriptions, coins, and paintings.
• Many monuments constructed by Mughal rulers provide valuable information.
• Coins and paintings offer economic and religious insights for the period.
• Archaeological sources for the period include:
  1. Reports of the Archaeological Survey of India Vols 1-33, edited by Alexander Cunningham, Simla and Calcutta, 1865-87.
  2. Annual Reports of the Archaeological Survey of India, New Imperial Series from 1902-1903 to date, edited by Sir John and others.
  3. Moghul Architecture of Fatehpur Sikri, described and illustrated in 4 volumes by E.W. Smith, Government Press, Allahabad, 1894-98.
  4. Akbar’s Tomb, Sikandrah, near Agra, described and illustrated by E.W. Smith, published by Government Press, Allahabad, 1909.
  5. History of Indian and Eastern Architecture by James Fergusson, revised and edited with additions by James Burgess and Rhene Spiens, 2 Vols., published by John Murray, London, 1910.
  6. Moghul Colour Decoration of Area, described and illustrated by E.W. Smith, Allahabad Government Press, 1901.
  7. India Architecture: Its Psychology, Structure, and History from the first Muhammadan Invasion to the present day by E.B. Havell, London, 1913.
  8. Handbook to Agra and the Taj by E.B. Havell.
  9. Mathura, a District Memoir by F.S. Growse, 1883.
  10. Delhi Fort: A Guide to the Buildings and Gardens, Calcutta, 1929.
  11. Mosque of Wazir Khan, Lahore, (J.I.H. Vol. x).
  12. A History of Fine Art in India and Ceylon by V.A. Smith, 2nd Ed., Oxford, 1950.
  13. The Archaeology and Monumental Remains of Delhi by Car Stephen, Calcutta, 1876.
  14. Transactions of the Archaeological Society of Agra, 1874, Delhi.
  15. Indian Architecture by Percy Brown, Vol. II (Islamic Period), 4th Ed., Bombay, 1964.
• The number of inscriptions from this period is not considerably large.
• The Archaeological Department of the Government of India has published Arabic and Persian Inscriptions in Epigraphia Indo-Moslemica (1907-1938).
• These inscriptions are arranged chronologically with summaries in V.S. Bandrey’s study of Muslim Inscriptions (Karnataka Publishing House, Bombay, 1944).

Coins

• Numismatic sources provide valuable information for setting conflicting dates and shedding light on the economic conditions of the Mughal period.
• Key works on Mughal coins include:
  1. Edward Thomas, The Chronicles of the Pathan Kings of Delhi, illustrated by coins, inscriptions, and other antiquarian memories, London, Trubner, 1871. Provides information on the coinage and history of the Mughal age.
  2. Lane Poole, Stanley, The Coins of the Mughal Emperors of Hindustan in the British Museum, London, 1892.
  3. Wright, H. Nelson, A Catalogue of the Coins in the Indian Museum, Calcutta, Vol. III, Ford, 1908.
  4. Whitehead, R.B., Catalogue of Coins in the Punjab Museum, Lahore, Vol. III, Oxford, 1914.
  5. Brown, C.J., Catalogue of Coins in the Lucknow Museum, 2 Vols., 1920.
  6. Hodivala, S.H., Historical Studies in Mughal Numismatics, Calcutta, 1923.
  7. Rodgers, C.J., Copper Coins of Akbar (JASB, part I, 1880; 1885).
  8. Rodgers, C.J., Rave Copper Coins (JASB, part I, 1895).
  9. Rodgers, C.J., Rave Copper Coins of Akbar (Indian Antiquary, 1890).
  10. Whitehead, R.B., The Mint Towns of the Mughal Emperors of India (J. Pro. A.S.B., 1912).
  11. White King, L., Novelties in Mughal Coins (Num. Chron, 1896).
  12. Dames, M.L., Some Coins of the Mughal Emperors (Num. Chron, 1902).
  13. Habib, Arfan, The Mughal Currency System (Medieval India Quarterly, Vol. IV, PP. 1-21).

Painting

• There is considerable contemporary material on Mughal painting.
• Tarikh-I-Khandan-I-Timuria is profusely illustrated and traces the evolution of Mughal art in India.
• Numerous illustrated works on the history and literature of the times of Akbar, Jahangir, and Shahjahan are preserved in Jaipur and other manuscript libraries in India, England, and other Western countries.
• Numerous portraits of Mughal emperors, princes, and some queens and princesses are found in:
  • Indian Museum, Calcutta.
  • Victoria Memorial, Calcutta.
  • Kala Bhawan, Banaras.
  • Jaipur.
  • British Museum.
  • South Kensington Museum.
  • India Office Library.
• Mural paintings and decorations can be seen in Mughal buildings of the period.
• Several modern scholars, from Comaraswamy to N.C. Mehta, have made special studies of Mughal art.
• V.A. Smith observes that there is enough contemporary material on Mughal art to write more than one volume.