Introduction

• The paucity of sources has been an obstacle in reconstructing early medieval history.

• The advent of Muslim rulers brought the culture of writing history, as it prevailed in central and west Asia.

• Court histories are partisan but provide useful information.

• During this period, travellers and chroniclers from near and far came to India, leaving valuable accounts.

• The main sources for the history of the early medieval period are the historians and foreign travellers of this period.

• Malfuzat texts and bardic lore can add to information, but are difficult to corroborate with other works.

• Apart from these, archaeological sources (including monuments, epigraphy, and numismatics) and literature are important traditional sources for early medieval history.

Literary Sources

Indigenous Literatures

• From c.700 CE, a new type of literary text called Charita (eulogies on the life of a political ruler) started to emerge.

• The first example of this genre is Harshacharita by Banabhatta, which speaks of the deeds of Harshavardhana.

• Charitas are not free from limitations due to the use of hyperbolic statements and need to be verified with other contemporary sources.

• Ramacharitam by Sandhyakaranandi discusses the waning of the Pala power and the efforts of Ramapala to recover the lost territory of Varendri (northern Bangladesh).

• The Vikramankadevacharita by Bilhana describes the career and achievements of his patron, Vikramaditya VI, a powerful south Indian ruler.

• Rajatarangini by Kalhana provides a connected account of the history of Kashmir from very remote times (possibly dating back to the nineteenth century BCE).

• Kalhana’s account about pre-7th century CE Kashmir was based on hearsay, legends, and tales, but from the 7th century CE onwards, it was more factual and dependable.

• Kalhana was a Kashmiri Brahmin from the 12th century CE, and he used evidence such as coins, accounts, and dynastic chronicles to compose his work.

• Kalhana’s approach to these sources was balanced and critical, surprising historians with his historical insight.

• Romila Thapar sees the Rajatarangini as the culmination of the Itihasa Purana type of textual narrative.

• Unlike Charitas, which were composed in a spirit of hero worship or patron pleasing, the Rajatarangini was written with a detached, impartial approach and provided historical insight.

Foreign Accounts

• Foreign accounts (Chinese and Arab) are important sources for early medieval India.

• Yijing (or Itsing), a Chinese traveller (635–713 CE), visited India in the 7th century CE and provided accounts of the socio-religious conditions of the time.

• One of Yijing’s works gives an account of Buddhist doctrines and practices in India.

• Arab works from the 9th–10th century include writings by Sulaiman, Al-Masudi, Abu Zaid, Al-Biduri, and Ibn Haukal.

• Later Arab writers like Al-Biruni, Al-Idrisi, Muhammad Ufi, and Ibn Batuta are also important sources.

• These foreign accounts are especially useful for information on trade.

• Al-Biruni, a scholar and contemporary of Mahmud of Ghazni, provided valuable information about India.

• Al-Biruni studied Sanskrit and acquired knowledge of Indian society and culture through literature. His observations are based on this knowledge, but he did not provide political information of his time.

• Al-Masudi (early 10th century) and Al-Idrisi (12th century) are helpful for understanding overseas trade, both to the west and east of India.

Archaeological Sources

Art and Architecture

• Study of architecture and sculpture helps in understanding the cultural life of early medieval India.

• From 600-1300 CE, the emergence of structural temples, usually monumental in size, marked the rise of strong regionalism in Indian culture, reflected in the beginnings of regional vernaculars.

• Three distinct temple styles emerged across the subcontinent:

  • North Indian temples: characterized by a tapering shikhara; this style is called the nagara style.

  • South Indian temples: featured a tall superstructure, pyramidal in shape, over the main shrine, known as the Dravida style.

  • Vesara style: emerged in present-day Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh, blending the north and south Indian styles.

• The sculpture of this period shows distinct regional features in both stone and metal sculptures.

• The Chola region in South India is renowned for its excellent metal sculpting, especially the images of Nataraja Shiva.

• The Pala rule in present-day Bangladesh, West Bengal, and Bihar produced exceptional images of Buddha.

• Despite shared Puranic sources of iconography, regional styles developed, contributing to the growth and diverse sculptural traditions in the subcontinent.

Inscriptions

• Tamil copper-plate inscriptions are records of grants given by South Indian royal dynasties to private individuals or public institutions, including grants of villages, plots of land, and other privileges.

• These inscriptions have been crucial in reconstructing the history of Tamil Nadu and were part of a structured taxation system that ensured the royal treasuries were full.

• The grants date from the tenth century CE to the mid-nineteenth century CE, with many relating to the Chalukyas, Cholas, and Vijayanagar kings.

• These plates offer insights into the social conditions of medieval South India and help fill chronological gaps in the history of the ruling dynasties.

• Unlike inscriptions in Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh (which were in Sanskrit), early inscriptions in Tamil Nadu were written exclusively in Tamil.

• Tamil has the oldest extant literature among Dravidian languages, but dating it precisely is difficult due to preservation through palm leaf manuscripts or oral transmission.

• External chronological records and internal linguistic evidence suggest the oldest works were likely compiled between the second century BCE and the tenth century CE.

• Epigraphic attestation of Tamil begins with rock inscriptions from the second century BCE, written in Tamil-Brahmi (an adapted form of the Brahmi script).

• From the sixth century CE, both stone and copper-plate inscriptions were written in Sanskrit, with some being bilingual.

• E. Hultzsch, appointed Epigraphist to the Government of Madras in 1886, began collecting South Indian inscriptions systematically.

• The earliest extant copperplate inscriptions date from the tenth century CE. Notable examples include:

  • Leyden plates,

  • Tiruvalangadu grant of Rajendra Chola-I,

  • Anbil plates of Sundara Chola, and

  • Kanyakumari inscription of Virarajendra Chola.

• The Thiruvalangadu copperplates (discovered in 1905 CE) are among the largest, consisting of 31 copper sheets and containing both Sanskrit and Tamil texts, likely written a decade apart.

• These plates record a grant made to the shrine of the goddess at Tiruvalangadu by Rajendra Chola-I.

• A typical Chola copperplate from the tenth century CE is displayed at the Government Museum, Chennai. It consists of five copper plates in a copper ring, secured with a Chola seal depicting a seated tiger, two fish, a bow, parasol, and lamps.

• The inscription is in Sanskrit and Tamil and records an edict issued by Ko-ara Kesarivarman (Uththama Chola) confirming dues to be paid to the Vishnu temple at Kachhippedu.

• Uththama Chola was an uncle and predecessor of Rajaraja Chola-I.

Coins

• Coins are an important source of administrative and constitutional history, providing insights into the art, religion, and symbols of the time.

• Coins often feature kings, gods, and religious symbols that reflect the art and religion of the period.

• A category of Indian coins, called Indo-Sassanian style or Gadhaiya paisa, was derived from Sassanian coinage and used by dynasties like the Gurjaras, Pratiharas, Chaulukyas, Paramaras, and Palas from circa 530 CE to 1202 CE.

• These coins typically display a simplified, geometric bust of the king on the obverse and a geometric fire altar design with or without two attendants on the reverse.

• Chola Empire coins often display a tiger crest and feature fish and bow emblems associated with the Pandyas and Cheras, suggesting political conquest and co-option of existing coin issuing practices.

• The coins of various Rajput princes in Hindustan and Central India were usually made of gold, copper, or billon, with silver being rare.

• These coins typically featured Lakshmi, the goddess of wealth, on the obverse, depicted with four arms (in contrast to the usual two arms in Gupta coins).

• The reverse of Rajput coins usually carried a Nagari legend and often depicted a seated bull and horseman, which were common devices on Rajput copper and bullion coins.

Conclusion

• Literary and archaeological sources are crucial in shedding light on the economic activities of early Indians.

• No single source can explain all aspects of the economic history of early Indians.

• Different sources together help explain the economic history of a people in a particular region during a specific period.

• The historian uses relevant sources based on the question being raised in the inquiry.

• Depending on the question, historians either find new sources or evaluate existing ones to find answers.

• The historian makes the sources work to solve the problem being studied.