Sturcture-Functionalism and Structuralism – UGC NET Solved PYQs of Sociology

Bronislaw Malinowski

2. Match the items in List-I with the items in List-II and choose the right answer from the codes given below: (JUNE 2012)

List-I
(a) Malinowski
(b) Durkheim
(c) Parsons
(d) Merton

List-II
(i) Pattern variables
(ii) Postulates of functional analysis
(iii) Collective consciousness
(iv) Biological need-based functionality

Codes:
(A) a-i, b-ii, c-iii, d-iv
(B) a-ii, b-iii, c-i, d-iv
(C) a-ii, b-iv, c-ii, d-i
(D) a-iv, b-iii, c-i, d-ii

Correct Answer: (D) a-iv, b-iii, c-i, d-ii

Bronislaw Malinowski is associated with biological need-based functionality. As one of the leading figures of anthropological functionalism, Malinowski argued that every cultural institution exists because it fulfills certain basic human needs. According to him, human beings have biological requirements such as food, shelter, reproduction, and security, and social institutions develop to satisfy these needs. His functional approach viewed culture as an integrated system in which each element performs a specific function for the maintenance of individual and social life.

Émile Durkheim is associated with the concept of collective consciousness. Durkheim used this concept to describe the shared beliefs, values, sentiments, and moral attitudes that bind members of a society together. In traditional societies characterized by mechanical solidarity, collective consciousness is strong and pervasive, influencing almost every aspect of social life. Durkheim regarded it as a crucial force for social integration and social order.

Talcott Parsons is known for the concept of pattern variables, which form an important part of his structural-functional theory. Pattern variables represent a set of choices or dilemmas that individuals face while performing social roles. These include dimensions such as universalism versus particularism, achievement versus ascription, specificity versus diffuseness, affectivity versus affective neutrality, and collectivity orientation versus self-orientation. Parsons used these categories to explain how social action is structured and how different societies organize social relationships.

Robert K. Merton is associated with the postulates of functional analysis. Merton critically examined earlier functionalist assumptions and identified key postulates such as the functional unity of society, universal functionalism, and functional indispensability. He argued that these assumptions should not be accepted without empirical verification. Merton further enriched functional analysis through concepts such as manifest functions, latent functions, and dysfunctions, making functionalism more flexible and suitable for empirical sociological research.

The correct matching is Malinowski – Biological need-based functionality (iv), Durkheim – Collective consciousness (iii), Parsons – Pattern variables (i), and Merton – Postulates of functional analysis (ii). This corresponds to Option (D).

3. “Kula” was associated with: (DEC 2012)

(a) Trobriand Islanders
(b) Malinowski
(c) Andaman Islanders
(d) Frazer

Codes:
(A) (b) and (c)
(B) (b) and (d)
(C) (a) and (b)
(D) (a) and (c)

Correct Answer: (C) (a) and (b)

The Kula is one of the most famous anthropological concepts and is closely associated with the Trobriand Islanders of the western Pacific Ocean and the anthropologist Bronislaw Malinowski. During his extensive fieldwork among the Trobriand Islanders, Malinowski studied a complex system of ceremonial exchange known as the Kula Ring. His observations became a landmark in social anthropology and demonstrated the importance of participant observation as a method of research.

The Kula exchange involved the circulation of two types of valuable ceremonial objects among different island communities. Red shell necklaces, known as Soulava, moved in a clockwise direction, while white shell armbands, known as Mwali, circulated in the opposite direction. These objects were not exchanged for immediate economic profit. Instead, they created and maintained long-term social relationships, prestige, trust, and political alliances among participating groups.

Malinowski showed that the Kula system could not be understood simply as an economic activity. It was deeply connected with social status, ritual practices, kinship relations, magic, and inter-island cooperation. His study challenged the belief that so-called primitive societies lacked organized economic and social institutions. Through the analysis of Kula, Malinowski demonstrated how exchange systems contribute to the integration and stability of society.

The Andaman Islanders are primarily associated with the studies of A.R. Radcliffe-Brown, who examined their social organization and religious life. James George Frazer is known for his work on comparative religion and magic, particularly in The Golden Bough, but he was not associated with the Kula exchange system. The concept remains most strongly linked to the Trobriand Islanders and Bronislaw Malinowski, making Option (C) the correct answer.

4. Match List-I with List-II. (DEC 2013)

List-I (Contributions of)
(a) R.K. Merton
(b) T. Parsons
(c) B. Malinowski
(d) L. Coser

List-II (Approach)
(i) Conflict Functionalism
(ii) Need Functionalism
(iii) Analytical Functionalism
(iv) Empirical Functionalism

Codes:
(A) a-iii, b-iv, c-ii, d-i
(B) a-iv, b-iii, c-ii, d-i
(C) a-ii, b-iii, c-iv, d-i
(D) a-iv, b-ii, c-iii, d-i

Correct Answer: (B) a-iv, b-iii, c-ii, d-i

R.K. Merton is associated with Empirical Functionalism. Merton sought to make functional analysis more scientific and research-oriented by emphasizing empirical investigation rather than broad theoretical assumptions. He criticized several classical functionalist postulates and introduced influential concepts such as manifest functions, latent functions, dysfunctions, and middle-range theories. His approach focused on studying specific social phenomena through observation and evidence, which led to the characterization of his work as empirical functionalism.

Talcott Parsons is associated with Analytical Functionalism. Parsons developed a highly systematic and abstract theoretical framework to explain social order and stability. His theory viewed society as a complex system composed of interrelated parts that work together to maintain equilibrium. Through concepts such as the social system, pattern variables, and the AGIL model, Parsons attempted to construct a comprehensive analytical framework for understanding social action and social structure.

Bronislaw Malinowski is associated with Need Functionalism. According to Malinowski, cultural institutions and social practices exist because they satisfy the biological and psychological needs of individuals. He argued that human beings have basic requirements such as nutrition, reproduction, safety, and shelter, and social institutions emerge to fulfill these needs. His functionalist perspective placed individual needs at the center of social and cultural analysis.

Lewis Coser is associated with Conflict Functionalism. Influenced by the ideas of Georg Simmel, Coser challenged the view that conflict is always harmful to society. He argued that conflict can perform important social functions by strengthening group identity, promoting adaptation, clarifying social norms, and helping maintain social integration. His work demonstrated that conflict and stability are not necessarily opposites and that conflict may contribute positively to the functioning of social systems.

The correct matching is R.K. Merton – Empirical Functionalism (iv), T. Parsons – Analytical Functionalism (iii), B. Malinowski – Need Functionalism (ii), and L. Coser – Conflict Functionalism (i). This corresponds to Option (B).

5. Match the items of List-I with List-II and select the Correct Answer from the codes given below (DEC 2013)

List-I (Concept)
(a) False Consciousness
(b) Magic
(c) Rational action
(d) Moral Community

List-II (Authors)
(i) Malinowski
(ii) Marx
(iii) Durkheim
(iv) Weber

Codes:
(A) a-i, b-iii, c-iv, d-ii
(B) a-ii, b-i, c-iv, d-iii
(C) a-iii, b-i, c-ii, d-iv
(D) a-iv, b-ii, c-iii, d-i

Correct Answer: (B) a-ii, b-i, c-iv, d-iii

The concept of False Consciousness is associated with Karl Marx. In Marxist theory, false consciousness refers to a situation in which members of the subordinate class fail to recognize the real nature of their exploitation and oppression. Marx argued that the ruling class controls the dominant ideas of society through institutions such as education, religion, law, and media. As a result, workers often accept existing inequalities as natural or legitimate, even when those inequalities operate against their interests.

The concept of Magic is closely associated with Bronislaw Malinowski. During his fieldwork among the Trobriand Islanders, Malinowski observed that magic played an important role in reducing anxiety and uncertainty. He found that magical practices were commonly used in situations where practical knowledge and technical skills could not guarantee success, such as deep-sea fishing. His analysis emphasized the psychological and social functions of magic within a cultural system.

The idea of Rational Action is associated with Max Weber. Weber developed a comprehensive theory of social action and classified human actions into different ideal types. One of the most important forms is instrumentally rational action (Zweckrational), where individuals consciously select the most efficient means to achieve specific goals. Weber considered rationalization a defining feature of modern society and examined its influence on bureaucracy, capitalism, law, and religion.

The concept of Moral Community is associated with Émile Durkheim. In his study of religion, particularly in The Elementary Forms of Religious Life, Durkheim defined religion as a unified system of beliefs and practices related to sacred things that unite individuals into a single moral community. He believed that religion strengthens social solidarity by creating shared values, collective beliefs, and a sense of belonging among members of society.

The correct matching is False Consciousness – Marx (ii), Magic – Malinowski (i), Rational Action – Weber (iv), and Moral Community – Durkheim (iii). This corresponds to Option (B).

6. Who has written the book “A Scientific Theory of Culture”? (DEC 2014)

(A) E.B. Tylor
(B) P.M. Sorokin
(C) B. Malinowski
(D) A.R. Radcliffe-Brown

Correct Answer: (C) B. Malinowski

A Scientific Theory of Culture was written by Bronislaw Malinowski, one of the most influential social anthropologists of the twentieth century and a leading proponent of functionalism. The book presents Malinowski’s systematic attempt to explain culture through scientific analysis and to demonstrate how cultural institutions function to satisfy human needs.

In this work, Malinowski argued that culture is not a random collection of customs, beliefs, and practices. Instead, it is an organized and integrated system designed to meet the biological, psychological, and social needs of individuals. According to him, every element of culture performs a specific function and contributes to the maintenance of social life. Institutions such as family, religion, economy, education, and law exist because they help individuals fulfill essential requirements necessary for survival and social continuity.

A central feature of Malinowski’s theory is the distinction between basic needs, derived needs, and integrative needs. Basic needs include requirements such as nutrition, reproduction, bodily comfort, safety, movement, growth, and health. To satisfy these needs, societies develop institutions and cultural practices. Derived needs emerge from the organization of social life, while integrative needs help maintain social cohesion and cultural unity.

The book also reflects Malinowski’s broader methodological contribution to anthropology. Through intensive fieldwork and participant observation, especially among the Trobriand Islanders, he emphasized the importance of studying cultures from the perspective of the people who live within them. His approach moved anthropology away from speculative theories and toward detailed empirical research based on direct observation.

E.B. Tylor is best known for his evolutionary theory of culture and his work Primitive Culture. P.A. Sorokin made significant contributions to sociological theory through his studies of social and cultural dynamics. A.R. Radcliffe-Brown is associated with structural functionalism and works such as The Andaman Islanders. The authorship of A Scientific Theory of Culture belongs to Bronislaw Malinowski, making Option (C) the correct answer.