The aim of the book is to present a brief general survey of the ancient history of South India to the middle of the seventeenth century CE.

A new epoch began after the downfall of the empire of Vijayanagar, with its partition between the sultanates of Bijapur and Golconda, and the establishment of the English East India Company along the coast of peninsular India.

South India refers to all the land south of the Vindhyas, encompassing the Deccan in the widest sense.

Our knowledge of the history of South India has greatly advanced in the last fifty years due to archaeological and literary discoveries.

Much of the new source material lies in inaccessible periodical reports of branches like the Archaeological Survey of India and important Indian states like Hyderabad, Mysore, and Travancore.

Scholars have written monographs on specific dynasties, areas, or topics, but these are limited in providing a general idea of the main movements in the history of politics and culture.

Sir R.G. Bhandarkar’s Early History of the Dekkan (1895) is the closest general history but is now outdated and does not cover the extreme South.

P.T. Srinivasa Iyengar’s History of the Tamils (1929) only covers the early history of the extreme South.

In general histories of India, the part of the country concerning South India has only a small mention.

Vincent Smith observed that most historians of ancient India have neglected the South, primarily due to the historian’s focus on North India and the limited records of South India before 600 CE.

Smith explained that southern kingdoms have far fewer records, leaving a significant gap in the history of India.

However, the history of South India is an integral part of India’s history, with the Deccan being one of the oldest inhabited regions globally.

The prehistoric archaeology and contacts with neighboring lands in South India are significant in the history of the world’s civilizations.

The foundation of Indian culture in all of India was laid through the fusion of Indo-Aryan and pre-Aryan elements, with South India preserving more of pre-Aryan India than anywhere else.

The Marathas of the western Deccan are the southernmost of the Indo-Aryan-speaking peoples, and all regions south and east of them speak Dravidian languages, with Tamil being the oldest surviving literary language.

The earliest Tamil literature dates back to the early centuries of the Christian era, offering valuable insights into early culture-contacts between Aryan and pre-Aryan elements.

The rise of Hindu kingdoms across the Bay of Bengal was an extension of the process by which South India and Ceylon were colonized and Aryanized.

The Deccan and the far South served as advanced bases for these transmarine movements, particularly in Indonesia and Indo-China, where Indian emigrants faced similar cultural challenges.

South India’s maritime side has often been neglected in historical studies, but it played a significant role in trade and colonization, especially during the rule of the Satavahanas.

The Satavahanas were known as “lords of the three oceans” and promoted overseas colonization and trade.

Under the Satavahanas, Buddhist art reached remarkable beauty and elegance, preserved in the cave-temples of western India and remnants from stupas in places like Amaravati, Goli, Nagajunukonda, and the Krishna valley.

The Satavahana rule in the Deccan coincided with the Tamil Sangam literature and active trade between India and the Roman empire.

The plastic arts of the Deccan in this period and the succeeding one were likely influenced by Greco-Roman models and artists.

After the close of the ^angam epoch (A.D. 300-600), there is a lack of information regarding occurrences in Tamil land.

Around A.D. 300, the Kalabhras upset the country, overthrew chieftains (sadhirdjar), and gained control of the region.

The overthrow of the Kalabhras led to a new era of Pandya-Pallava achievements starting in the sixth century A.D..

The period marked by the rise of several dynasties in the Deccan, continuing the traditions of the Satavahana empire, such as the AbhJras, Traikiltakas, Vikatakas, Ikshvikus, Salankiyanas, Vishnukundins, Chutas, Kadambas, Gangas, and Pallavas.

Buddhism and Jainism made considerable progress, with the former inspiring the art of Ajanta and other regions, while Jainism found acceptance in the western Deccan and Tamil country.

The period also includes the earliest inscriptions from regions like Burma, Malaya, Java, Borneo, and Indo-China, showing the important role of Deccan and South India in colonization and aryanization.

The next period (c. A.D. 600-950) is marked by large states with notable records in both war and peace.

In the Deccan, the Chalukyas of Badami rise and spread power between the two seas, while the Telugu country and other regions form independent kingdoms.

The Chalukyas held their ground against Harshavardhana, limiting his empire to the north of the Vindhyas, and fought against the Pallavas.

The fine stone temples at Aihole, Badami, and Pattadakal attest to their devotion to religion and architecture.

By the middle of the eighth century, the power of the Chalukyas declined, and the Rashtrakutas emerged, establishing their empire with Manyakheta (Malkhed) as the center.

The Rashtrakutas continued the traditions of the Chalukyas, with a notable feud with the Chalukyas of Vengi.

The rock-cut temple of Kailasa at Ellora is a remarkable monument of the Rashtrakutas.

In the South, the Pallavas and Pandyas shared the country, with shifting frontiers, and the Pallavas had to fight on two fronts.

The Cholas, though initially absent, re-emerged in the next epoch with significant prominence.

During the Pandya-Pallava period, there were developments in religion, literature, and art.

Sanskrit was highly regarded as the language of higher literature and culture.

The Pallava king Mahendravarman I was a polymath—author, architect, musician, and painter.

A reaction against Jainism and Buddhism led to a bhakti movement among worshippers of Shiva and Vishnu, led by the Nayanars and Alvars, whose devotional songs formed the Divyaprabandham and Divyaram.

The great Kumarila and Sankara lived in the same period, with Sankara expounding monistic Vedanta.

The temples and sculptures of the period represent the highest perfection of South Indian art.

Mahabalipuram and Kanchipuram are major centers of this art.

The rise of the imperial Cholas, starting with Vijayalaya Chola in the ninth century, displaced Pallava power and subdued Pandya and Chera countries, expanding into Ceylon.

The Rashtrakutas, especially Krishna III, temporarily threatened the Chola empire, but their power was weakened, and the Chola power surged under Rajendra I and Rajendra I.

The Cholas established political unity in Southern India, controlling the Indian Ocean and regulating the empire of Sri Vijaya through invasion and diplomacy.

The Cholas perfected a highly organized administrative system, fostering village autonomy, and constructed the Great Temple of Tanjore, a magnificent gem of South Indian architecture.

Gangaikondasilapuram was established as a new city, symbolizing the Chola power.

The religious revival continued with the formation of canonical collections of Tamil hymns and monumental bronze images of Nataraja, representing the peak of South Indian art.

The Chalukyas of Kalyatti built their power on the ruins of the Rashtrakota empire and were contemporaries and opponents of the Cholas in the 11th and 12th centuries A.D.

The frontier between the Chalukya and Chola kingdoms fluctuated along the Tungabhadra, with many bitter wars.

The Eastern Chalukya kingdom of Vengi was the bone of contention, as its rulers were allied to the Kalyani Chalukyas but also beholden to the Cholas who had restored them to their throne after a civil war at the end of the 10th century.

In A.D. 1070, the ruler of Vengi succeeded to the Chola throne as Kulottunga I after the failure of the Chola male line.

Vikramaditya VI, the great Chalukya opponent, had a rivalry with Kulottunga I that lasted about half a century, weakening both empires.

The Hoysalas of Dvarasamudra, Yadavas of Devagiri, and Kakatiyas of Warangal, all feudatories of the Chalukya empire, emerged in the latter half of the 12th century and partitioned the territories of the parent empire.

The Hoysalas expanded at the expense of the Cholas and protected them from their overgrown vassals.

By the early 13th century, the Pandya line began to produce powerful monarchs, and the northern half of the Chola empire fell under the control of Kopperunjinga, a chieftain who claimed descent from the Pallavas.

The Hoysalas attempted to curb the growing Pandya power, but with little success, as the Pandyas took over the Tamil country and the east coast up to Nellore.

Sanskrit learning and literature flourished under the patronage of various dynasties, including the Chalukyas, Hoysalas, Kakatiyas, and Cholas.

The Ramayana and Mahabharata were rendered into Kannada, Telugu, and Tamil, and devotional and polemical literature in religion grew.

Ramanuja systematized the doctrines of Vishishtadvaita, reconciling Upanishadic doctrine with the theistic beliefs of the Alvars and Acharyas.

Nimbarka, close to Ramanuja’s system, positioned Krishna and Radha as the central deities of devotion.

Large stone temples, architecture, sculpture, and allied arts received extensive patronage and saw new forms of beauty and splendor.

The age of the Cholas and Chalukyas (900-1200) is regarded as the grandest epoch in the history of South India.

The 13th century saw the rise of four Hindu kingdoms inheriting the territories of previous empires: the Pandyas and Hoysalas in the south, and the Yadavas and Kakatiyas in the north.

The Delhi Khilji sultans began casting their eyes on the South at the end of the 13th century and the beginning of the 14th century, aiming for plunder, spoil, and eventually territorial conquest.

The Khiljis and later the Tughlaqs established their nominal rule over parts of South India.

Madurai became an independent Sultanate after the rebellion of a Muslim governor from Delhi.

The crisis was short-lived due to the distance from Delhi, the inherent weakness of the military empire, and the resistance of the people.

Two kingdoms emerged in the Deccan in the first half of the 14th century: the Bahmani kingdom in Gulbarga (a Muslim state) and the Vijayanagar Hindu empire.

The Bahmani kingdom spread from sea to sea in the northern Deccan and opposed both Muslim neighbors in the north and the Hindu empire to the south.

The Bahmani sultans were cruel and bloodthirsty, with many of them murdered or deposed; however, they did patronize authors and architects from Persia and showed occasional concern for the well-being of their Muslim subjects.

In the 16th century, the Bahmani kingdom split into five sultanates, including Bijapur and Golconda, which continued to feud with Vijayanagar.

These sultanates were eventually absorbed into the Mughal empire in the 17th century.

Vijayanagar became the focus of resurgent Hindu culture, successfully resisting Islam in South India for about three centuries.

The empire was organized on a warlike footing, with competent monarchs required for leadership; incompetent claimants were replaced by able lieutenants.

The polity was a military confederacy of chieftains cooperating under the leadership of the strongest.

To strengthen their armies, foreigners and even Muslims were employed in artillery and cavalry sections.

Despite struggles, Vijayanagar kept up the fight against Muslim forces for three centuries until it fell.

European trading companies, particularly the Portuguese, arrived in the sixteenth century, but their threat to Hinduism was controlled by Vijayanagar rulers.

The Portuguese were initially friendly with Vijayanagar but often quarreled with its coastal feudatories; their attempts at plundering Hindu temples and converting people to Christianity were eventually checked.

Vijayanagar’s task was to conserve Hindu society and prevent dissolution, leading to the rise of narrow orthodoxy in social and religious matters.

Orthodoxy in religious matters became deeply ingrained, complicating widespread reforms.

Literature and the arts supported the growing tide of orthodoxy, with important works like commentaries on the Vedas and Smruti.

The Sarvadarsana-sangraha codified various philosophical systems, laying the foundations for this development.

The building of temples, pavilions, and gopurams, along with gifts to temples and scholars, marked royal patronage.

The fine arts such as painting, music, and drama flourished under royal and temple patronage.

In the villages, the people became more dependent on petty officials appointed by the central government, leading to a decline in the autonomous village rule established under the Cholas.

The militarization of the empire weakened important civil institutions like village autonomy.

The writer aims to present a simple narrative of the political and cultural movements of ancient South India, focusing on facts, persons, and tendencies of importance.

The study is still in its initial stages, with scope for varied interpretations at different stages.

The book does not delve deeply into rival authorities or controversial topics but attempts to provide reasonable reconstructions for presentation.

Further arguments and conclusions are explored in the works cited at the end of each chapter.

Vincent Smith criticized the long-standing focus on North India, Sanskrit texts, and Indo-Aryan concepts, suggesting that more attention should be given to the non-Aryan element in Indian history.

Professor Sundaram Pillai argued that historians should begin their study with the regions of Krishna, Kaveri, and Vaigai basins instead of the Gangetic plain, which has been the traditional focus.

While the idea of focusing on South India is logical, it remains difficult due to the extensive Aryanization of the region, making it hard to distinguish native from foreign influences.

Pre-Aryan elements in Indian culture remain challenging to trace, and some attempts to connect Dravidian culture to Aryan culture have led to implausible results.

The Indus Valley excavations have raised more questions than answers, and the relationship between the Indus Valley civilization and Indo-Aryans or Dravidians remains unclear until more information is available.

The study of prehistory in South India is still in its infancy, and historians must continue focusing on the North for now.

There is a common complaint that history, particularly Indian history, focuses too much on dynasties and wars, neglecting the common people and cultural movements.

Modern history has expanded its focus to include social and economic developments, along with progress in religion and art, but chronology remains essential for establishing a coherent narrative.

Kings and chieftains, often the subjects of political history, were also patrons of culture and the arts, and their histories can provide insights into the broader life of the people.

The study of ancient South Indian history is still relatively new, with limited scholars working in the field, and progress in the interpretation of source materials has been slower than desired.

This book will focus on established facts, bypassing unresolved questions, and will offer a broad outline of South Indian history before delving into its cultural movements.

Inscriptions are the most reliable source of South Indian history, with the Brahmi script being the earliest form found in the region.

The Mauryan empire extended into South India, as evidenced by Ashoka’s inscriptions found in places like Siddapura, Jatinga-Ramcivara, Brahmagiri, Maski, Yerragudi, and Rajula-Mandagiri.

The inscriptions in Tamil districts are more significant for South Indian history, recording names of ascetic orders, likely Jain and Buddhist, and are among the earliest known examples of Tamil epigraphy.

These records, though limited, suggest the spread of asceticism in the pre-Christian era, particularly in the Deccan and Krishna valley regions.

The Satavahana dynasty left inscriptions in the Brahmi script at sites like Kanheri, Karle, and Nasik, providing evidence of early Buddhist influence in the region.

The Prakrit language was used in many of these early inscriptions, which were primarily stone engravings.

Copper-plate grants became popular after the Satavahanas, with some dynasties, like the Brihatphalayanas, known only by a single copper plate.

Prakrit was the language of inscriptions until the 4th century A.D., after which Sanskrit became the preferred language for official documents, especially by the Kadambas, Gangas, and Pallavas.

Later inscriptions became bilingual, with Sanskrit at the beginning and end, and the local language (Kannada, Telugu, or Tamil) in the body of the document.

From the 10th century A.D., inscriptions in the popular speech became common, though Sanskrit continued to hold an honored place.

Script evolution: The script evolved into the ancestor of the modern Telugu and Kannada scripts in the Deccan, and in the south, it first took the early form of Grantha used in Pallava inscriptions before modifying under the influence of the Tamil alphabet in two forms: Tamil and Vatteluttu (round hand).

The origin of these scripts is debated, with Buhler suggesting that the Tamil alphabet was derived from a northern alphabet of the 4th or 5th century and influenced by Grantha used for writing Sanskrit.

Vatteluttu was a cursive script, similar to the Modi script of the Marathas, and went out of use in Tamil country by the 10th century A.D., though it continued on the west coast for much longer.

The early Pallava-Grantha script spread to west Java, Borneo, and Indo-China, with the first inscriptions from around A.D. 300, and these early colonial inscriptions were in Sanskrit.

Stone inscriptions increased in number from the 6th century onwards, but copper-plate records remained crucial for centuries, with several dynasties relying heavily on copper plates for historical records.

The early Pandya history (7th-10th century A.D.) is based on copper-plate records, which are bilingual, using Grantha for Sanskrit and Vatteluttu for Tamil.

The Pallava history of Simhavishnu also relies mostly on copper plates, as do the histories of the Eastern Chalukyas and Chalukyas of Badami.

Some Chola charters on copper plates were extremely long, engraved on large plates with a seal, such as the Leyden grant of Rajaraja and the Kanindai plates of Rajendra I.

Vijayanagar rulers used a variety of Nagari script (known as Nandi Nagari) for Sanskrit in their copper-plate records.

In rare cases, charters were engraved on precious materials like silver, as seen in a charter from Vijayarighava Nayaka to the Dutch in 1658.

Copper plates were legally prescribed for granting property titles, but some were fabricated, especially in the early history of the Gangas of Mysore, creating confusion.

Copper-plate inscriptions are few in number, but stone inscriptions total several tens of thousands, mainly recording small gifts to temples.

Larger gifts, particularly by ruling monarchs, are of exceptional historical value, recording taxes remitted and privileges granted.

The Tamil inscriptions of Chola Rajaraja I on the walls of the Tanjore Temple provide a detailed picture of the empire’s economy.

Several long inscriptions offer insights into village assemblies, the role of craft and trade guilds, education, and medicine.

The Tirumukkudal inscription of Vijayarajendra lists the medicines in a local hospital, while the Motupalli inscription of Kakatiya Ganapati gives information about maritime trade.

Inscriptions on stone or copper follow a definite order, starting with an invocation, which may be a brief prose formula, a verse, or multiple verses invoking deities.

Next, a preamble (praisi) is included, narrating the names and achievements of the ruler and their ancestors, often in a set form common to several records of the reign.

The donor (if not the king) is described, detailing their achievements and those of their ancestors, followed by a description of the donee and their ancestry, or of the group/institution receiving the gift.

A description of the gift is provided, often specifying land with carefully outlined boundaries, or it may include money, cattle, taxes, etc.

The formula of the gift typically includes a statement that the gift is given with water poured from the hand of the donor into the hand of the donee for their perpetual and undisturbed enjoyment.

The record concludes with an imprecation on anyone who may disturb the charity and praise for those who will maintain and protect it.

Some longer inscriptions are dedicatory and commemorative, like the Aihole inscription of Pulakeshin II and the Talagonda pillar of the Kadambas, often containing valuable praiseworthy lines of rulers.

A notable inscription is the Tiruvendipnram inscription of Chola Rajaraja III, which gives a candid account of the king’s troubles and the intervention of the Hoysalas.

The Kudumiyamalai inscription from Pudukottai region contains groups of musical notes, arranged by a king who was a worshipper of Siva and a pupil of Rudracharya.

Another important inscription from Tiruvidaivayil in the Tanjore district contains a hymn by Ranasambandar to the local deity.

Early inscriptions are dated in the regnal years of kings, often without any other means of absolute chronology, and rely on paleography for dating.

The first mention of the Saka era is in the Badami rock inscription of Pulakeshin I, dated Saka 465 (A.D. 543).

Some inscriptions contain astronomical details, though not all work out satisfactorily, and often the chosen date remains probabilistic.

Pandyan inscriptions sometimes mention years alongside each other, and epigraphists treat the total as the year of the reign when the inscription was issued.

Inscriptions often contain legends and exaggerations, making it difficult to detect the truth behind partisan statements made by rival dynasties engaged in constant warfare.

There are instances where both parties claim victory in a war, with some justification for each claim.

Much work remains to be done in studying and interpreting the social and economic information in the inscriptions, hindered by the slackness in the publication of texts by the Epigraphical Department.

In addition to inscriptions, coins also serve as evidence, though ancient coins are rare and contain few intelligible legends, often only the monarch’s name or title.

Early coins in South India were punch-marked coins of silver, and copper punch-marked coins were also used until around A.D. 200.

Later, gold coins became predominant in the South, with two denominations: the varaha (weighing 50-60 grains) and the jernam (a tenth of the varaha, weighing 5-6 grains).

Early gold coins were spherules of plain gold with a punch mark, followed by padma-tankas, which were thin, cup-shaped coins, and later came die-struck pieces like the Vijayanagar pagodas.

Smaller coins were preferred, and silver coins from Calient, weighing only a few grains, represent some of the smallest coins known.

During the early centuries of the Christian era, Roman imperial coins of gold and silver were imported in large quantities through trade and circulated freely in the country.

The small copper coins bearing Roman devices and legends might have been locally produced by foreign settlers.

The Satavahanas used lead for many of their coin issues, and their coins bear legends of kings’ names, which confirm the Puranic lists.

One of the most interesting coin types from the Satavahanas shows a two-masted ship on the obverse, indicating the maritime power and activity of the Andhras.

The earliest padma-tankas were likely struck by the Kadambas, and one of the most satisfactorily dated coins from this period is a base silver coin with a lion device and the title Vishamasiddhi, belonging to Vishnu Vardhana (615-633), the founder of the Eastern Chalukya rulers.

The practice of punch-marking on gold coinage continued long after its disuse on silver and copper coins.

A large hoard of coins struck by the Telugu-Chodas of Nellore in the 13th century shows that the padma-tanka type had a long history and wide influence.

Nagari legends appear on Kakatiya coins and continue on those of Vijayanagar; they are also found on the coins of the Kadambas of Goa and the Cholas.

The legends on coins from other dynasties are in Kannada, Telugu, or Tamil, depending on the region where the coins were struck.

Conquests are often depicted by designs on coins. For instance, Chola coins portray a tiger seated under a canopy with Pandya fish on one side and the Chera bow at the bottom.

The Vijayanagar kings issued pagodas, which were small and dumpy, and they were issued in half and quarter divisions.

The coinage of the Madurai Sultanate followed the contemporary Delhi Sultanate models and is distinguishable only by its southern calligraphy.

The Bahmani sultans followed Delhi coinage patterns but on a more generous scale; later, a single design was adopted for both gold and silver coins.

The literary evidence is another important source of historical knowledge, both indigenous and foreign.

There are few historical works in Indian literature, most of which are temple chronicles like the Maituraitia-vamldpit and SrIrajgamJcoyil-ojugu, which are useful mainly for recent history and contain inaccuracies for earlier times.

Ballads like the Rdmappayya/i and inimdnai are somewhat useful, but no early specimens have survived.

While direct contributions from literary sources to history are limited, the indirect value of studying Indian literature is immense.

Literary works help historians understand the social and religious milieu in which historical figures lived and acted.

The prologues, epilogues, and colophons of various works often contain valuable information on the lineage and achievements of the authors and their royal patrons.

The later Vedic literature and the epics reflect the penetration of North Indian influences into the southern regions.

The earliest extant Tamil literature from the Sangam Age clearly shows the blending of northern cultural elements with southern traditions, marked by vivid expression and realism.

The Kalambakam, u1d, parani, and kovai are types of prabandha literature in Tamil that contain historical narratives, especially when written by court poets.

A Pdrtik-kdvai mentions Pandya rulers, but the hero is likely a composite figure representing the entire dynasty.

The Naadlk-katambakam, focusing on Pallava Nandivarman III, is more trustworthy and useful for understanding the history of the time.

Several works from the imperial Chola period, such as the Kalifigunup-pafani of Jayangondar, provide insights into events like the Chola invasion of Kalinga.

The Paftipa-bfidruta and Ranna’s Gaddyuddfia in Kannada offer valuable historical information, particularly regarding Rashtrakula and Chalukya history, as the authors chose to associate their patrons with characters from the epics.

Bilhana’s Viknjmdftkadeva is less valuable for history compared to some of the Tamil and Kannada works mentioned above.

The history of Vijayanagar is extensively documented in Indian literary sources, which have been made accessible through two collections of select sources by the University of Madras.

Kdlajdanas, which are works purporting to be prophecies by seers, are not very helpful for historical purposes.

The value of these works lies in providing a necessary corrective to biased accounts written by Muslim historians of the Bahmani kingdom and its successor states.

Muslim historians contributed more to genuine historical writing than Hindus during this period, with many historical works written in Persian under the patronage of Muslim monarchs in the Deccan.

However, many of these Persian works have either perished or are still not available, though Ferishta mentions several works that were used in composing his history.

Futuh-us-salaim by Isamy is the only surviving contemporary work on the history of the Bahmani kingdom. Isamy, grandson of a Sipah Salar, began his work in 1358 and completed it in the following year.

The work is written in verse and presents the history of the Delhi Sultanate up to Muhammad bin Tughlaq, followed by a vivid description of the political turmoil in the Deccan, which led to the formation of the Bahmani kingdom.

The Bahmani kingdom is discussed alongside the Muslim conquest of the Deccan and South India, with a focus on the reign and character of the first Bahmani Sultan.

Other works on the Bahmani kingdom, written later, focus on the successor states, with Burhm-imaasir by Ali bin Aziz-ullah Taba Tabai being notable.

Taba Tabai, a contemporary of Ferishta, wrote a history of the Nizam Shahi kingdom of Ahmadnagar, starting in 1591 and completing it by 1596.

His work has a bias in favor of the Nizam Shahi dynasty but is considered more authentic than Ferishta in certain respects, particularly regarding coin evidence.

Ferishta, writing under the patronage of the Adil Shahis of Bijapur, is regarded as the prince of Muslim historians of the period due to the wide range and comprehensiveness of his work, completed in 1606.

Ferishta’s history is a monumental account of Indian Islam, though it can sometimes lack accuracy in detail.

Born Muhammad Kasim Hindu Shah Ferishta, he came to Ahmadnagar at the age of twelve in 1552, and after facing setbacks, moved to Bijapur where he joined the army and later turned to writing.

Another important work is Tazkifut-ul-niuluk, written by a Persian merchant named Shirazi in 1608-1610, which provides details about Bijapur history, although it does not offer much on the Bahmani kingdom.

The Persian influence on Indo-Muslim culture is evident, as all four historians mentioned here were of Persian origin and wrote in Persian.

Abd Allah Shirazi Wassaf, a Persian historian writing in the early 14th century, offers valuable data about the Pandyan country and the state of trade during the period.

Foreign writers’ notices on Southern India include important early accounts by Greek and Roman writers, and later Chinese and Arab historians and merchants.

By the 8th century, writings by Arab merchants and geographers became more significant, while Chinese sources grew more detailed.

From the 14th century onwards, the number of foreign travelers and writers increased, with Portuguese, Italians, and later Dutch and English travelers contributing to historical records.

Megasthenes, one of the first classical writers to note South India, gives an account of the Pandyan kingdom, which was ruled by Pandia, a daughter of Herakles. He mentions that the kingdom was organized into 365 villages, with each village bringing the royal tribute daily, assisting the queen in collecting it from defaulters.

Trade between South India and Egypt was conducted during the Hellenistic period and continued actively under the Roman Empire.

Strabo records an increase in knowledge of India among the Romans, especially after an expedition sent by Augustus (25 B.C.) to secure the Red Sea route to India.

Pliny the Elder (c. A.D. 75), the anonymous author of the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, and Ptolemy (A.D. 130) provide further stages of Roman knowledge about the countries in the east. Pliny and Ptolemy based their work on other sources, but the author of the Periplus had first-hand knowledge of the western Indian ports.

Ptolemy’s geography takes account of the east coast of India and much of Farther India as well.

The Byzantine monk Cosmas (c. A.D. 550), called Indikopleustes, was an early traveler to India. His work, Christian Topography, although considered full of errors, provides valuable insights into trade and geography.

Intercourse between China and South India by sea dates back to as early as the second century B.C., with a Chinese embassy sent to Ranchi and a Chinese coin discovered in Chandruvalli in Mysore.

Chinese annals from the third, fourth, and fifth centuries A.D. show that Hindu kingdoms in Indo-China and the archipelago were in active contact with South India and China. These kingdoms sent gifts to the Chinese court, including sandalwood and pearls, which were South Indian products.

Fa-hien, a Chinese monk, did not visit mainland South India but traveled by sea from Tamluk to Ceylon and mentions the Deccan and pigeon monastery.

Many Buddhist monks traveled from South India and Ceylon to China by sea, spreading Buddhism and translating scriptures into Chinese.

Cosmas mentions the arrival of Chinese ships bringing silk to Ceylon.

Yuan Chwang (A.D. 641-642), a famous Chinese Buddhist monk, spent months in the Deccan and South India, providing interesting observations on religious and social conditions. However, his account is often criticized for lacking detailed observations.

I-hsing, another Chinese monk, did not visit South India, but his works provide valuable information on Buddhist practices in various lands and include biographies of around 60 prominent monks who visited India during his time.

Chinese embassies were exchanged with the Pallava court of Kanchi in the eighth century and the Chola court in the eleventh century, signifying active trade between China and South India.

Mongol emperor Kublai Khan sent several embassies to South India, though the results of these efforts are unclear.

Wang Ta-yuan, a Chinese merchant, traveled widely between 1330 and 1349, writing the Taih-chi-lio (“Description of the Barbarians of the Isles”). His work describes Colombo, the Maldives, Kayangulam, Eli, and Calicut.

In the fifteenth century, the Ming dynasty under the third emperor launched significant naval expeditions, establishing their dominance. These expeditions prompted foreign rulers to send embassies to the Chinese court, including seven reaching South India under the command of the famous Cheng Ho.

Fei Hsin and Ma Huan, who accompanied Cheng Ho, left accounts of their travels, notably documenting Ceylon, Cheng, and Calicut. Their works are valuable for providing detailed observations of these regions between the travels of Ibn Batuta and the arrival of the Portuguese.

Arab travellers and geographers became valuable sources from the ninth century A.D.

Trade in the Indian Ocean was predominantly controlled by Arabs from early times, with the rise of Islam leading to significant expansion in commerce, science, and religion.

Before the end of the seventh century, a colony of Muslim merchants had established themselves in Ceylon.

In 758, Arabs and Persians in Canton raised a tumult in the city, taking advantage of the resulting confusion.

Ibn Khurdadbeh, a Persian Muslim, wrote the Book of Routes and Kingdoms (844-845), providing dry but wide-ranging information.

Abu Zaid Hassan of Siraf supplemented earlier works on India and China (916) through his studies and interactions with travellers.

Ibn al-Fakih from the early tenth century also drew heavily from Abu Zaid and other writers, reflecting a common practice of copying among Arab writers.

Alberuni (1030) provided little on South India, and Abulfeda (1273-1331) also added no significant new information, often citing Ibn Said (1214-86).

Ibn Batuta, a famous Moorish explorer, was born in Tangier around 1300 and travelled extensively, including spending many years in India during the reign of Muhammad bin Tughlaq.

Ibn Batuta’s accounts of South India offer valuable insights into the political, religious, and social conditions of the time.

Benjamin of Tudela (c. 1170), a Jewish traveller from Spain, is debated to have ever visited India, though he offered observations on Quilon and its trade.

Marco Polo, the Venetian merchant, reached the court of Kublai Khan after a three-and-a-half-year journey across Asia.

Polo spent 17 years at the Mongol court, where he became a trusted official.

In 1292, Polo left China and passed through parts of South India on his way to Persia, collecting surprising amounts of information despite being only a passerby.

Polo described South India’s maritime trade and its products like topaz, amethyst, emeralds, sapphires from Ceylon, and diamonds from Golconda.

John of Monte Corvino, a Franciscan friar, travelled in 1292-93 by way of India to China to spread the gospel, marking the beginning of Christian missionary criticism of Indian practices.

Friar Odoric of Pordenone, who visited India around 1321, travelled along the west coast, visited Ceylon, and explored the St Thomas shrine in Mailäpür.

Friar Jordanus arrived in India around 1321-1324, mentioning the Parsis and their practice of exposing the dead.

Jordanus was appointed Bishop of Columbum (Quilon) in 1328, but it is unclear whether he took charge of the office.

John of Marignolli, a Florentine monk, went to China by land, like Marco Polo, as papal legate to Kublai Khan’s court and later visited Quilon and the Coromandel Coast, where he explored the St Thomas shrine.

Marignolli also spent time in Ceylon and gave an interesting account of the Buddhist monks there.

Vijayanagar rose in the fourteenth century, and the Portuguese power in the East attracted many foreigners to India, increasing foreign evidence on South India.

Nicolo Conti, an Italian, visited Vijayanagar around 1420-21. He narrated his experiences, which were transcribed into Latin and later translated into Portuguese and Italian. His account describes the Vijayanagar court, festivals, and currency.

In 1442, the Persian ambassador Abdur Razzak was sent on a mission by Shah Rukh to the Zamorin. His journey included Calicut and Vijayanagar, where he witnessed the Mahanavami festival. However, merchants from Ormuz questioned his credentials, and his treatment in Vijayanagar changed.

Athanasius Nikitin, a Russian trader, spent several years in the Deccan around 1470, traveling in the Bahmani kingdom. His observations on the court, army, and the condition of people under Bahmani rule are valuable.

Ludovico di Varthema, an Italian gentleman and soldier, traveled in India from 1502-1508. His record of his travels, particularly regarding Gon, Calicut, and Vijayanagar, was initially doubted but is now considered credible.

Duarte Barbosa, a Portuguese who served in India from 1500 to around 1516, was fluent in Malayalam. He acted as an interpreter and wrote a detailed account of Vijayanagar after returning to Portugal.

Portuguese writers such as Domingos Pars (c. 1520-1522) and Fernao Nuniz (1535-1537) contributed to the knowledge of Vijayanagar in the 16th century. Caesar Frederick visited Vijayanagar after the Battle of Talikota.

Ralph Fitch (1583-1591), Nicolas Pimenta, John Huighen van Linschoten (1583), and others contributed to understanding South India in the late 16th century.

Jesuit letters from South India offer vivid references to political events of the early 17th century. Dutch factor Schorer (1615) and English factor William Methwold (1618-1622) wrote about Golconda and Masulipatam.

Pietro della Valle, an Italian traveler (1586-1652), is considered one of the most eminent travelers for pleasure. He visited India from 1623-1624, including Cambay, Ahmadabad, Chaul, Goa, Ikkeri, Mangalore, and Calicut. His letters offer a vivid representation of life in the Portuguese settlements and native territories in the early 17th century.