The Portuguese in India

• The coming of Europeans to India was a significant event in Indian history, leading to revolutionary changes in India’s future destiny, with the Portuguese being the first Europeans to arrive.
• Indian commodities were in high demand in European markets during the Middle Ages, reaching Europe by land or partly by sea. However, difficulties arose with the rise of the Turks, which closed the land route and created the need for a new sea route to India.
• The Portuguese were the pioneers in finding this new route. Prince Henry of Portugal (1393-1460), also known as the “Navigator”, made significant contributions by establishing a school for seamen and supporting those engaged in navigation.
• As a result of Portuguese efforts, the entire African coastline became known to them, and they crossed the Equator in 1471, reaching the Congo River in 1481.
• In 1487, Bartholomew Diaz, sponsored by King John II, was carried by storms past the Cape of Good Hope.
• In 1497, Vasco da Gama, under the patronage of King Emmanuel, began his expedition, following the route established by Diaz, crossing the Cape of Good Hope and reaching Mozambique.
• With the help of an Indian pilot, Vasco da Gama sailed to India and reached Calicut in April 1498. He was cordially received by King Zamorin and granted certain privileges.
• The arrival of Vasco da Gama in India was not welcomed by the Arabs, who spread rumors against the Portuguese. Due to these challenges, Vasco da Gama left India after staying for about three months.
• According to Dodwell, the Portuguese were fortunate in several ways:
  • They arrived at a time when small princes in India were divided by mutual jealousy, making it easier to form alliances.
  • The region around Cochin and Calicut was dependent on Muslim vessels for rice supplies, making them vulnerable to a blockade by sea.
  • They arrived at the close of the 15th century when no powerful state in India could prevent their establishment.
  • The Portuguese vessels were sturdier than Indian ships, which was crucial for their success at sea.
• Naval power was essential for the Portuguese, as they could not rely on land warfare. Their supremacy at sea was crucial for establishing control.
• The Portuguese ships were built to resist Atlantic storms, while Indian vessels were frail and primarily designed for sailing with favorable winds, making them vulnerable to the Portuguese.
• Portuguese ships could withstand weather that would force enemies to seek shelter, and they were equipped with cannon, which Indian vessels could not withstand.
• In 1501, Vasco da Gama returned to India for a second visit, establishing a factory at Cannanore before returning to Portugal in 1503.
• Despite opposition from the Arabs, the Portuguese successfully established trading centers at Calicut, Cochin, and Cannanore, treating the Arabs with cruelty and oppression.
• After Vasco da Gama left India, the Portuguese faced attacks by King Zamorin in Cochin, but they were defeated, establishing Portuguese supremacy in the region.

De Almeida (1505-9)

• De Almeida was the first Viceroy of the Portuguese possessions in India.
• He opposed the idea of multiplying settlements on land and instead emphasized focusing on the development of naval power.
• De Almeida believed that as long as the Portuguese were powerful at sea, they would hold India. He argued that without this naval power, having a fortress on land would not be of much value.
• This policy is known as the “Blue Water Policy”.
• Both Almeida and his son were defeated and killed in 1509 by the Egyptians.

Albuquerque (1509-1515)

• Albuquerque was the second Viceroy of the Portuguese in India and based his policy on four points:
  • Occupying important places for trading and ruling them directly.
  • Encouraging mixed marriages with the native inhabitants to colonize selected districts.
  • Building fortresses where conquest or colonization was not possible.
  • Inducing native merchants to recognize the supremacy of the King of Portugal and pay tribute.
• Albuquerque was a significant conqueror, annexing Goa in 1510, which became the headquarters of the Portuguese Empire in India.
• He also conquered Malacca, and in 1515, he conquered Ormuz in the Persian Gulf and built a fort at Cochin.
• He appointed a large number of Portuguese officers to administer the region and treated the Hindus and Muslims with a degree of tolerance, encouraging Portuguese-Indian marriages.
• Albuquerque is hailed as the founder of the Portuguese Empire in India and was respected for his valour, integrity, charitableness, and patriotism.
• He is praised for his commanding character, diplomatic skills, and his ability to perceive the importance of maintaining Goa as the center of power, as a dockyard, and a place from which troops could be drawn.
• His death in 1515 was mourned by both Europeans and natives.
• According to Dodwell, Albuquerque shared qualities with the great Englishman Clive, both being military leaders with high spirits, unshakable constancy, and the ability to discern conditions for success.
• After his death, the Portuguese power in India continued to grow, acquiring Diu and Bassein in 1534, and conquering Daman in 1538.
• In 1545, the fort of Diu was successfully defended from an attack by the King of Gujarat, and in 1571, a combined force of rulers failed to capture Goa.
• The Portuguese in India represented a conflict of interests: the Portuguese traders were new competitors to the existing Arab and Egyptian merchants.
• The Portuguese controlled key trade routes, establishing fortresses and maintaining a strong navy. They monopolized certain goods for the benefit of Portugal, with unlicensed vessels being captured.
• Their possessions on the west coast of India were integral to Portugal, while east coast settlements were often less formal and became centers of lawlessness and pirates.
• The Portuguese politically only added confusion to the existing Indian politics, with Goa’s capture involving enmity with Bijapur and limited support to Vijayanagar against Muslim rulers.
• In war, they introduced higher standards of artillery and musketry, creating a reputation for invincibility.
• Regarding commerce, the Portuguese expanded the trade of Indian pepper to Western Europe and opened new markets in Africa and Brazil.
• They also contributed to coastal trade security by combating pirates along the Malabar Coast and escorting merchant vessels, although they imposed high licence fees and bribes.
• The decline of Portuguese power began in the 17th century, mainly due to the union of Portugal and Spain under Philip II, leading to the loss of territories like Amboyna to the Dutch, Ormuz to Iran, and Malacca in 1640.
• Ceylon was lost to the Dutch in 1656, and in 1739, the Marathas captured Bassein, marking the end of Portuguese dominance in India.

Causes of failure of Portuguese Empire in India

• Several factors led to the failure of the Portuguese empire in India.
• After Albuquerque’s death, no strong leader was sent by the Portuguese Government, resulting in the disintegration of the empire.
• Corruption in Portuguese administration, with low salaries leading officials to accept bribes and act selfishly for personal gain.
• The religious policy of the Portuguese, including the Inquisition, led to atrocities against non-Christians. Coercive methods of conversion created bitterness among the people. In 1540, all Hindu temples in Goa were destroyed under Portuguese orders.
• The establishment of the Mughal Empire under Akbar in 1556 limited the growth of Portuguese power in India. The Mughals brought most of India under their control, restricting Portuguese expansion on the mainland.
• Portugal was a small country with limited resources, which were divided between its possessions in India and Brazil. Over time, the Portuguese focused more on Brazil than on India.
• In 1580, Portugal came under Spanish control, leading to Spanish interests dominating over Portuguese interests. Spanish officers were sent to India, where they acted selfishly and ruined the Portuguese cause.
• The rise of Dutch and English power in India created strong rivals, who gradually outmatched the Portuguese, contributing to the empire’s downfall.
• The Portuguese settlers in India were characterized by courage and enthusiasm for conquest, but many were cruel, factious, and domineering. Their arrogance grew, and the mixed race they created was inferior to the original stock, leading to increased avarice and corruption.
• Over time, the Portuguese were detested by the Indian people, and their empire in India became insignificant.
• Dodwell notes that by the close of the 16th century, the Portuguese empire was in decay. Corrupt officials, unrepaired fortresses, and declining trade contributed to the downfall.
• Portuguese unity was dissolved, as shown by insults to Francisco da Gama, the Viceroy from 1597 to 1600. The disunity weakened their position in India.
• Portugal, a small country, struggled to maintain its empire. The occupation of Brazil and Indian waters took a heavy toll on its population, with high mortality rates and few men returning home.
• To compensate for manpower shortages, outlaws and criminals were sent to India, degrading the quality of settlers.
• The Portuguese fell into mental stagnancy, ceasing to make progress in shipbuilding, navigation, and military skills. Their supremacy in Indian waters was eroded by rivals who surpassed their ability to build, sail, and fight.
• Goa became a place where Portuguese reputations were buried, signaling the empire’s decline.

The Dutch in India

• The Netherlands revolted against Philip II, and despite his efforts, they won their freedom.
• In 1592, the Dutch Company was started by a group of Amsterdam merchants.
• In 1597, Cornelius Houtman set out for India, returning with a large cargo, opening the Indian Archipelago to the Dutch.
• The Dutch success led to the formation of additional companies, and in 1602, all the Dutch companies were amalgamated into the Dutch East India Company, receiving a Charter that granted them a monopoly of eastern trade and powers to wage war, make treaties, occupy territories, and build fortresses.
• The main focus of the Dutch East India Company was trade, particularly concentrating on the Spice Islands in the Far East.
• The Dutch aimed to establish an exclusive monopoly on the Spice Islands, forcing local chiefs to accept Holland’s sovereignty and banning other European nations from trading there.
• Initially, the Dutch and the English entered the East as allies, both opposing Catholic Spain and Portugal, but rivalry soon developed between the two powers.
• The Dutch were determined to maintain their trade monopoly, leading to the 1623 Amboyna Massacre, which forced the English to retreat to the mainland of India.
• The Dutch had to pay an indemnity of £85,000 during the time of Cromwell.
• The Dutch conquered Malacca from the Portuguese in 1641 and acquired Ceylon in 1658.
• In India, the Dutch established trading posts at Negapatnam on the Madras Coast and Chinsurah in Bengal, but their overall position in India was insignificant.
• The Danes, encouraged by other European merchants, sought to share in the Indian trade.
• The Danes established a settlement in 1620 at Tranquebar in Tanjore District, and in 1676, they occupied Serampore.
• Despite these efforts, the Danes were unable to establish a lasting foothold in India and sold their settlements to the British in 1845.