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Book No. – 11 (History)
Book Name – India: The Ancient Past (Burjor Avari)
What’s Inside the Chapter? (After Subscription)
1. The dynastic landscape
1.1. The Chalukyas
1.2. The Pallavas
1.3. The Rashtrakutas
1.4. The Cheras
1.5. The Pandyas
1.6. The Cholas
2. Kingship and authority in a southern kingdom
2.1. Kingly virtues
2.2. Royal authority and local autonomy: the controversial Chola model
3. The economy of the south
3.1. Agrarian self-sufficiency
3.2. Temple urbanisation and commerce
3.3. Muslim role in west-coast overseas commerce
3.4. Chola commercial influence in South East Asia
4. Caste and gender in the south
4.1. Caste differentiations
4.2. Women: deconstructing a single tradition
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The Ascendancy of the South
Chapter – 10
Table of Contents
Timeline/Key Dates
| Date | Event |
|---|---|
| CE 600 | Revival of the Pallava kingdom by Mahendravarman |
| CE 525–757 | Chalukyas of Badami |
| CE 609–42 | Pulakeshin II of the Chalukyas begins the great rivalry with the Pallavas |
| CE 752–982 | Rashtrakuta kingdom |
| CE 765–920 | Pandyas of Madurai |
| CE 814–80 | The reign of Amoghavarsha, the most famous Rashtrakutan king |
| CE 846–1173 | The growth of the Chola kingdom |
| CE 914–28 | The Rashtrakutan king Indra III captures Kanauj |
| CE 973 | The defeat of the Rashtrakutas by the Chalukyas of Kalyani |
| CE 985–1014 | Rajaraja I extends Chola power in the south |
| CE 1025 | Rajendra Chola’s naval expedition to Sri Vijaya |
- Southern peninsula of India includes the Deccan plateau, southern plains, and mountain ghats along the coastlines.
- Evidence suggests African humanity may have reached south India nearly 50,000 years ago.
- Some post-Harappan communities might have moved to the Deccan via Gujarat.
- Aryanisation of south India began around the middle of the second millennium BCE, involving partial Sanskritisation of southern culture.
- Buddhism and Jainism took root early in the south.
- The Pandya, Chera, and Chola kingdoms had established strong mercantile relations with Rome, Levant, and Egypt by the time of Christ.
- Satavahana kingdom was an important political entity in the Deccan during the first three centuries of the first millennium CE.
- Tamil, the most ancient southern language, had a flourishing literary tradition during the Sangam Age (200 BCE–CE 400).
- Despite southern significance, north India dominated historical attention since the eighteenth century, with Western scholars focusing on Sanskrit and Aryan culture.
- Vedic religion and Aryan culture were central to nineteenth-century studies, while the south remained marginalized.
- Since the mid-twentieth century, the study of southern history gained momentum.
- The rise of southern kingdoms from the seventh century CE ended the political obscurity of the south.
- Southern kingdoms were not as fragmented as the north, where post-imperial collapse led to over twenty small states.
- The southern states resisted Muslim interference until the fourteenth century CE.
- Arabs had traded in the south even before converting to Islam, but Hindu culture remained dominant in the south until the fourteenth century.
- After the fourteenth century, parts of the Deccan fell under Muslim rule, but the core Tamil lands stayed firmly Hindu.
- The absence of intense Hindu-Muslim conflict in the south was significant for its future.
- The chapter will cover southern kingdoms, kingship ideology, economic and social developments, and culturalaspects like religion, literature, and art in early medieval India.
The dynastic landscape
- After the Mauryas, the Satavahana and Vakataka kingdoms held uninterrupted power in the Deccan.
- The period between the third and seventh centuries CE is called the Kalabhra Interregnum, due to the disruptions caused by the Kalabhra dynasty.
- By about CE 600, Chalukya, Pallava, and Rashtrakuta dynasties rose, having humble beginnings but growing strong after defeating the Kalabhras.
- These dynasties had a rivalry that shaped the future of the south.
- Their power base was in Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, and Maharashtra, and they waged wars for control over the entire south, with the Rashtrakutas even seeking hegemony in the north.
- They were prosperous due to strong commercial traditions, benefiting from Arab and Persian merchants and mariners.
- Sangam literature mentions three distinct kingdoms in the south by the third century BCE: Chera (south-west coast/Kerala), Pandya (Madurai), and Chola (south-east coast).
- Despite increasing Aryanisation, Brahmanisation, and Sanskritisation, these kingdoms had little impact on the overall Indian political scene.
- Their territorial interests were mainly local, except in relation to Sri Lanka.
- The idea of imperial rule did not influence the deep south, partly due to the distance from the Gangetic basin.
- The foundation of kingdoms in the south came later than in the north, shaped by unique southern cultural and geographical factors.
- Between the third and seventh centuries CE, the southern kingdoms faced setbacks from attacks by the Kalabhras.
- From the seventh century onwards, the southern kingdoms drew strength from agrarian prosperity, profitable commercial links, and strong temple cultures to build authority and governance.
- During the eleventh and twelfth centuries, when the north was plundered by Turks, the Chola dynasty in the souththrived.
- After the decline of the Cholas, other Hindu kingdoms like the Hoysalas and Vijayanagaras rose.
- While north Indian wealth was drained to Afghanistan, south India flourished due to Chola maritime and commercial activities.
- South India remained Hindu despite the spread of Muslim power in the following centuries.
- This reflects the complex plurality of India, showing that periodising history based on religion is inadequate.
The Chalukyas
- The Chalukyas originated from the Kadamba region of Karnataka, which remained their main base.
- They expanded into the lands previously dominated by the Satavahanas and Vakatakas.
- Three distinct Chalukya families emerged: Early Chalukyas of Badami (CE 525–757), Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi(CE 624–1020), and Later Chalukyas of Kalyani (CE 973–1200).
- The Early Chalukyas were the most significant in terms of power.
- Pulakeshin I (543–66) marked the beginning of real Chalukya power, which reached its peak under Pulakeshin II(609–42).
- Pulakeshin II consolidated power with rulers like Vikramaditya I (654–68), Vijayaditya (696–733), and Vikramaditya II (733–44).
- The last ruler, Kirtivarman II (744–57), was overthrown by the Rashtrakutas.
- Pulakeshin II was the most famous Chalukyan monarch.
- During his reign, he made aggressive moves against surrounding rulers, establishing suzerainty over Gujarat and Malwa, and keeping King Harsha confined to lands north of the River Narmada.
- This encounter with Harsha ended military intrusion from the north for many centuries.
- Pulakeshin II incorporated the Andhra region into his family’s domain, leading to the rise of the Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi.
- His victories were commemorated in the Aihole prasasti, inscribed by his court poet Ravikirti on the Meguti Templein Aihole, Karnataka.
- Chinese traveller Hsuan Tsang praised Pulakeshin II’s courage and valour, highlighting the unique military practice of giving losing generals women’s clothes to drive them to suicide.
- Pulakeshin II overreached by attacking the Pallava kingdom, which led to his defeat and death in 642.