• Demography is the systematic study of population, derived from Greek words demos (people) and graphein (describe).

• It examines trends and processes associated with population, including:

  • Changes in population size

  • Patterns of births, deaths, and migration

  • Structure and composition of population (proportions of women, men, and age groups)

• Varieties of demography include:

  • Formal demography: largely quantitative, focuses on measurement and analysis

  • Social demography: examines social, economic, and political aspects of populations

• All demographic studies rely on counting/enumeration such as census or survey for systematic data collection within a specified territory.

• Demography is especially important to sociology, aiding its emergence as an academic discipline.

• In 18th-century Europe, two key processes occurred:

  • Formation of nation-states

  • Beginnings of modern statistics

• Modern states expanded functions in:

  • Public health, policing, law and order

  • Economic policies (agriculture, industry)

  • Taxation and city governance

• Expanded state functions required systematic collection of social statistics (quantitative data on population and economy).

• Modern social statistics emerged toward late 18th century:

  • American census (1790) was the first modern census

  • Europe followed in early 1800s

  • In India, British Indian government censuses (1867–72); decennial censuses since 1881

  • Independent India has conducted seven decennial censuses since 1951, latest in 2011

  • Indian census is the largest in the world by regularity

• Demographic data is crucial for state planning, economic development, and public welfare.

• Social statistics justify sociology by showing aggregate phenomena at a social level:

  • Aggregate statistics (e.g., death rate per 1,000 population) reveal social patterns

  • Emile Durkheim’s study of suicide illustrates explaining aggregate phenomena (social causes) despite individual-specific reasons

• Distinction between formal demography and population studies:

  • Formal demography: focuses on measurement and quantitative analysis, uses mathematical methods to forecast population growth and composition changes

  • Population studies/social demography: investigates causes and consequences of population structures and change; emphasizes social processes and structures influencing demographic trends.

Some Theories and Concepts in Demography

The Malthusian Theory of Population Growth

• Among the most famous theories of demography is Thomas Robert Malthus’s (1766–1834) theory of population growth, outlined in Essay on Population (1798).

• Malthus’s theory was pessimistic, arguing that human populations grow faster than the means of subsistence (food, clothing, agriculture-based products).

• As a result, humanity is condemned to live in poverty because agricultural production cannot keep up with population growth.

• Population growth rises in geometric progression (2, 4, 8, 16, 32…), while agricultural production grows only in arithmetic progression (2, 4, 6, 8, 10…).

• Since population outstrips production, the only way to increase prosperity is by controlling population growth.

• Preventive checks (voluntary) include postponing marriage, sexual abstinence, or celibacy, but human capacity to control population is limited.

• Positive checks (inevitable) such as famines and diseases were nature’s way of correcting the imbalance between population and food supply.

• Malthus’s theory was influential for a long time but challenged by theorists claiming economic growth could outstrip population growth.

• Historical experience of European countries refuted Malthus:

  • In the late 19th century, birth rates declined

  • Epidemic diseases were controlled

  • Food production and standards of living rose despite population growth

• Liberal and Marxist critics opposed Malthus for blaming poverty on population growth.

• Critics argued poverty and starvation result from unequal distribution of economic resources rather than population size.

• An unjust social system allowed a wealthy minority to live in luxury, while the majority lived in poverty.