The Harappan Civilization, c. 2600–1900 BCE
Chapter – 4
Table of Contents
- 1826: Charles Masson visits Harappa, believes it to be the site of Alexander the Great’s battle with King Porus.
- 1850s: Alexander Cunningham, interested in archaeology, conducts small excavation at Harappa but isn’t impressed.
- 1872: Cunningham returns as Director General of ASI, finds mounds badly disturbed by railway contractors, discovers stone tools, ancient pottery, and a seal with strange writing.
- Early 20th century: ASI officers, like Pandit Hiranananda Sastri and D. R. Bhandarkar, initially unenthusiastic about Harappa and Mohenjodaro.
- 1920s: Daya Ram Sahni and R. D. Banerji begin excavations at Harappa and Mohenjodaro.
- 1924: John Marshall, Director General of ASI, formally announces the discovery of the Indus or Harappan civilization, pushing back the origins of Indian civilization by 2,500 years, making it contemporary with Mesopotamia and Egypt.
Civilization and Urbanization: Definitions and Implications
- Urbanization refers to the emergence of cities, often associated with civilization and writing.
- Neolithic settlements like Jericho and Çatal Hüyük were considered urban despite the absence of writing.
- Mayan and Mycenaean civilizations lacked true cities, while the Inca civilization lacked true writing.
- V. Gordon Childe identified 10 criteria to distinguish cities from villages.
- Childe’s criteria led to a debate on the diagnostic features of urban societies.
- Trends in defining cities include narrowing diagnostic features, specifying criteria like settlement size, architecture, and focusing on abstract features.
- The rise of the first cities can be explained by technological, social, and political factors.
- McC. Adams highlighted the interdependence of cities and villages and their roles in the appropriation, redistribution, and regulation of surpluses.
- Gideon Sjoberg emphasized the role of political control in city development and the many functions of cities.
- Factors contributing to city emergence include population growth, long-distance trade, irrigation, and class conflict.
- Multiple factors, such as social, political, economic, technological, and ideological, played a role in city emergence.
- Archaeology provides more direct information on the technological aspect of city emergence.
- The emergence of cities is part of a longer history of human settlements, involving cultural complexity, technological advancement, and the rise of states.
Recent Discoveries and Changing Perspectives
- Over the years, information about the Harappan civilization has significantly increased through new discoveries and interpretations.
- Early comparisons with Mesopotamia influenced theories about Harappan origins and economy but are now viewed with caution.
- Attention has shifted from emphasizing urban sites like Mohenjodaro and Harappa to smaller settlements, including towns and villages.
- Regional and inter-site differences are observed in settlement layouts, crops, artifacts, and funerary practices, indicating diverse subsistence strategies and customs.
- Re-interpretation of structures, such as questioning the nature of “great granaries,” impacts understanding of Harappan social and political systems.
- Recent excavations at Harappan sites emphasize careful analysis of cultural sequences and use scientific techniques for dietary and health insights.
- Debates about the Harappan civilization reflect the potential of archaeology and the role of interpretation in shaping understanding.
- Different theories exist for various aspects of the Harappan civilization, with some leading to conclusions and others highlighting the limits of current knowledge.