Society as the Background of the Moral Life

• Ethics is the normative science of human conduct in societies.

• Human actions are significant in ethics because they affect other individuals, though actions not affecting others are still ethically relevant.

• The life of society is the normal atmosphere and training ground of morality.

• Moral ideas develop through association with others and are constantly criticized and modified by others’ opinions.

• The objectivity of moral opinions is supported by their general agreement with the opinions of others.

• Moral judgements often have a direct social reference, aiming at the satisfaction of others rather than solely oneself.

• Morality is generally a social business, except in rare cases like saints or ascetics.

• Aristotle: Man without society is either a beast or a god.

• Two exaggerations of the social view of morality to avoid:

  • (a) Subordination of individual good to community good:

    • If community good = sum of individuals’ goods → may be greater than any individual’s good.

    • If community good = something beyond individual goods → individual good usually takes priority.

    • Social goods are largely instrumental, serving the good of individuals.

    • Institutions (state, college, church) may have some intrinsic value, but it is usually minor compared to individual goods.

    • Kant: Rational beings are ends in themselves, not means to an abstract society.

  • (b) Coherence with others’ volitions is not the sole test of moral willing:

    • Coherence may be a condition of good willing within an individual.

    • In a perfected community, coherence among wills is likely, but in a developing community, conflict is normal.

    • Moral reformers often face resistance; reforms may bring conflict rather than peace.

    • Communities may coherently pursue morally bad policies, making such actions worse (e.g., political or racial persecution).