The Jews’ political ignorance and prejudices in favor of authority made them oversensitive to all forms of social discrimination

Difficult to distinguish between political antisemitism and mere social antipathy as both developed side by side

These two forms of discrimination arose from opposite aspects of emancipation:

• Political antisemitism because Jews were seen as a separate body

• Social discrimination due to Jews’ growing equality with other groups

Equality of condition is a basic requirement for justice but also a great and uncertain venture

The more equal conditions become, the less obvious the explanation for actual differences between individuals and groups

Once equality is seen as a mundane fact rather than a divine or inevitable destiny, it is often mistaken as an innate quality of individuals

This leads to viewing individuals as “normal” if like others and “abnormal” if different, which perverts equality from a political to a social concept

This perversion is more dangerous when society leaves little space for special groups or individuals, making their differences more conspicuous

Modernity’s challenge: man confronting man without differing protections of circumstances

This new concept of equality makes modern race relations difficult because natural differences remain conspicuous

Equality demands recognition of all individuals as equals, but groups reluctant to grant this basic equality cause cruel conflicts

Thus, the more equal the Jewish condition became, the more surprising and visible their differences

This led to both social resentment and attraction toward Jews, shaping the social history of Western Jewry

Discrimination and attraction were politically sterile: they did not create political movements nor protect Jews politically

However, they poisoned social atmosphere and perverted social interactions between Jews and Gentiles, affecting Jewish behavior and identity formation

Social antipathy and discrimination did little political harm in Europe because genuine social and economic equality was never fully achieved

New social classes developed by birth, allowing Jews to establish themselves as a special clique

In contrast, in the United States, where equality of condition was taken for granted and individual success was believed possible, discrimination became the primary means of distinction

Discrimination could crystallize into a political movement solving national conflicts by violence, mob rule, and racial vulgarity

The American Republic’s paradox: it realized equality despite having the most unequal population physically and historically

Social antisemitism in the U.S. may become a dangerous nucleus for political movements

In Europe, social antisemitism had little influence on the rise of political antisemitism