• Rewarding kids for reading, such as with free pizza, can increase reading behavior in the short term.
• However, research suggests that such external rewards can undermine intrinsic motivation in the long term.
• The overjustification effect occurs when external rewards lead individuals to attribute their behavior solely to the reward, diminishing their intrinsic interest in the activity itself.
• Unlike performance-contingent rewards like grades in college, which can enhance motivation by indicating competence, extrinsic rewards like pizza for reading may overshadow intrinsic motivation.
• Psychology is a fascinating field that touches various aspects of life, from personal relationships to public policy.
• Introductory psychology courses aim to provide a better understanding of human behavior, attitudes, and reactions.
• Critical thinking skills are essential for evaluating psychological claims, considering established facts and the quality of supporting evidence.
• This chapter introduces psychology’s topics, historical origins, perspectives, research methods, and ethical guidelines.

• Ancient Philosophical Roots: Early Greek philosophers like Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle posed fundamental questions about consciousness, rationality, and free will, laying the foundation for psychology.
• Hippocrates and Physiology: Hippocrates, known as the “father of medicine,” made significant contributions to the study of physiology, particularly regarding the brain’s control over bodily functions, paving the way for the biological perspective in psychology.
• Nature-Nurture Debate: A longstanding debate questioning whether human capabilities are innate or acquired through experience, with proponents of both views offering insights that shape contemporary psychology’s understanding of human development.
• Wilhelm Wundt and the Birth of Scientific Psychology: Established the first psychological laboratory in 1879, focusing on studying mental processes through introspection, although this method eventually fell out of favor.
• Structuralism vs. Functionalism: Structuralism, championed by E.B. Titchener, aimed to analyze mental structures into basic elements, while functionalism, led by William James, emphasized understanding the adaptive functions of consciousness.
• Behaviorism: Founded by John B. Watson, behaviorism rejected the study of consciousness, focusing instead on observable behavior and conditioning processes.
• Gestalt Psychology: Emerged in Germany around 1912, emphasizing the organization of perceptual experiences and the idea that the whole is different from the sum of its parts.
• Psychoanalysis: Developed by Sigmund Freud, emphasizing the unconscious mind’s influence on behavior and personality, often through methods like dream analysis and free association.
• Twentieth-Century Developments: Post-World War II, psychology saw advancements in information processing, neuropsychology, and linguistics, leading to a cognitive revolution and a renewed focus on mental processes.

Psychological Perspectives Overview:

• • Approaches in psychology to understand behavior.
  • Five major perspectives: Biological, Behavioral, Cognitive, Psychoanalytic, and Subjectivist.
  • Perspectives not mutually exclusive; eclectic approach often necessary.

Biological Perspective:

• • Studies behavior in terms of brain and nervous system activity.
  • Focus on neurobiological processes underlying behavior.
  • Example: Explains depression through abnormal changes in neurotransmitter levels.

Behavioral Perspective:

• • Focus on observable stimuli and responses.
  • Behavior seen as result of conditioning and reinforcement.
  • Example: Analysis of social interactions based on stimuli, responses, and reinforcement.

Cognitive Perspective:

• • Concerned with internal mental processes.
  • Studies perception, memory, reasoning, and problem-solving.
  • Assumes mental processes can be objectively studied, often using computer analogy.

Psychoanalytic Perspective:

• • Developed by Freud, behavior stems from unconscious processes.
  • Emphasizes instincts and unconscious beliefs influencing behavior.
  • Example: Aggressive behavior attributed to innate instincts.

Subjectivist Perspective:

• • Behavior a function of perceived world, not objective reality.
  • Emphasizes individual and cultural differences in defining situations.
  • Incorporates introspection and systematic observation.

Relationships between Perspectives:

• • Biological perspective makes direct contact with psychological perspectives.
  • Reductionism involves explaining psychological concepts in biological terms.
  • Both levels (psychological and biological) needed for comprehensive understanding.

Major Subfields of Psychology:

• • Biological Psychology:

    • Examines relationship between biological processes and behavior.

  • Cognitive Psychology:

    • Focuses on internal mental processes like problem-solving and memory.

  • Developmental Psychology:

    • Studies human development and factors shaping behavior from birth to old age.

  • Social and Personality Psychology:

    • Social: Investigates how people perceive and interpret their social world.
    • Personality: Studies individual differences in thoughts, emotions, and behaviors.

  • Clinical and Counseling Psychology:

    • Clinical: Applies psychology to diagnose and treat emotional and behavioral problems.
    • Counseling: Deals with less serious problems, often with students.

  • School and Educational Psychology:

    • School: Works in schools to evaluate learning and emotional problems in children.
    • Educational: Specializes in learning and teaching methods, often in universities.

  • Organizational and Engineering Psychology:

    • Organizational: Concerned with selecting suitable individuals for jobs and designing collaborative structures.
    • Engineering: Improves human–machine interaction for better performance and safety.

Generating hypotheses:

• Hypotheses can be generated through astute observation of naturally occurring situations or by being familiar with relevant scientific literature.
• Scientific theories often provide a basis for hypotheses, as they offer interrelated propositions about a phenomenon.
• Testing hypotheses derived from competing theories is a powerful way to advance scientific knowledge.

Research strategies:

Experiments:

• Experiments are the most powerful method for testing cause-and-effect relationships.
• Variables are manipulated and controlled to discover causal relationships among them.
• Experiments require precise control over variables and often take place in laboratories.
• Random assignment of participants to conditions is crucial for eliminating bias and ensuring validity.
• Multivariate experiments, which manipulate several independent variables simultaneously, are common in psychological research.

Measurement:

• Experiments involve making measurements on participants, and statistics are used to analyze and interpret the data.
• The mean is a common statistic used to compare groups and determine the significance of differences.

Correlation:

• Correlational studies determine the degree of association between two variables.
• The correlation coefficient ranges from -1 to +1, indicating the strength and direction of the relationship.
• Correlation does not imply causation; additional experiments are necessary to establish causal relationships.

Observation:

Direct observation:

• Observing phenomena directly as they occur naturally is a starting point for much psychological research.
• Careful observation of behavior in humans and animals provides valuable insights.

Survey method:

• Surveys use questionnaires or interviews to gather information about behaviors, opinions, or traits.
• Social desirability effects and biases must be considered in survey research.

Case histories:

• Case histories involve obtaining partial biographies of individuals to study their past experiences.
• They can be useful for generating hypotheses but may be limited by memory distortions.

Literature reviews:

• Literature reviews summarize existing research on a topic and are essential for assessing patterns in the evidence.
• Narrative reviews and meta-analyses are common forms of literature reviews.

Ethics of psychological research:

Research with humans:

• Ethical principles include minimal risk, informed consent, and the right to privacy.
• Deception may be used but must be justified and followed by debriefing.
• Costs and benefits of the study must be carefully weighed.

Research with animals:

• Ethical guidelines require justification for any painful or harmful procedures on animals.
• Researchers have a moral obligation to treat animals humanely and minimize their pain and suffering.
• Animals should be considered full partners in the research enterprise, and living conditions must adhere to specific rules.

Overall:

• Psychological research involves generating hypotheses, conducting experiments or correlational studies, making observations, and reviewing existing literature.
• Ethical considerations are paramount and govern the treatment of both human participants and animal subjects.
• Rigorous methods and adherence to ethical guidelines are essential for producing valid and reliable scientific knowledge in psychology.