• Cold War ended in 1991 with the breakup of the USSR, leaving the USA as the world’s only superpower.
• USA was confident in its victory over communism and believed it would lead the world into a period of peace and prosperity.
• Optimists thought the USA would spread democracy and act as the world’s policeman.
• Francis Fukuyama argued that the world reached the “end of history” with the triumph of modern liberal democracyand market-oriented capitalism.
• The new world order was different, as much of the world disagreed with the USA’s worldview.
• Terrorism became a tool for extremists to strike at the USA and its allies.
• Terrorism wasn’t new, with past examples such as anarchist assassinations and localized campaigns by groups like ETA and the IRA.
• In the 1970s, terrorism began to act outside of localized regions, such as the 1972 Munich Olympics attack and bombings on aircraft.
• The USA became a primary target in the 1980s, with incidents like the 1983 Beirut embassy attack, the 1988 Lockerbie bombing, and the 1993 World Trade Center bombing.
• In 1998, US embassies in Kenya and Tanzania were attacked, and the 2000 USS Cole bombing in Yemen targeted the US Navy.
• 11 September 2001 marked the culmination of this campaign with the destruction of the World Trade Center in New York.
• The USA declared a war on terrorism and focused on overthrowing regimes that were believed to be supporting al-Qaeda, like the Taliban in Afghanistan and Saddam Hussein in Iraq.
• The Taliban was overthrown in October 2001, and a pro-US government was established.
• Iraq‘s Saddam Hussein was overthrown in 2003, but rebuilding efforts faced challenges, leading to instability.
• In Afghanistan, the Taliban regrouped in 2003 and launched an insurgency, leading to continued violence and civil war in 2012.
• Tension grew between Iran and the West, especially over Iran’s nuclear program.
• The West feared Iran was seeking nuclear weapons, though Iran claimed its intentions were peaceful.
• By 2012, discussions were focused on potential pre-emptive strikes against Iran’s nuclear facilities.
• 2010-2011 saw anti-government protests across the Middle East and North Africa, beginning in Tunisia.
• The Arab Spring led to the overthrow of governments in Tunisia, Egypt, Libya, and Yemen, while several other countries were forced to introduce reforms.

• After the Cold War ended, US spokesmen announced a new era of peace and international cooperation, positioning the USA as the world’s only superpower committed to justice, liberty, human rights, and the eradication of poverty.
• Americans were proud of their country’s achievements, with David Rothkopf praising the USA as the most just, tolerant, and best model for the future.
• Despite this optimism, the USA was met with violent hatred from certain quarters, leading to terrorist acts in protest.
• Many people worldwide did not share the prosperity of the American lifestyle and saw the USA as failing to narrow the gap between the rich and poor or support justice and human rights.
• Nicholas Guyatt in “Another American Century” highlighted resentment towards the USA for its impenetrability and failure to adopt multilateral solutions, which pushed people towards radical actions.
• USA’s actions caused desperation globally, with a complex combination of interventions and policies fueling resentment.
• The USA often failed to support the United Nations; for example, in 1984, it rejected a ruling by the International Court of Justice over its unlawful actions in Nicaragua and refused to pay compensation.
• US foreign policy continued to be interventionist, as seen in 1989, when US forces invaded Panama, resulting in the deaths of over 2000 civilians.
• The USA helped suppress left-wing movements in Mexico, Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru, and in 1999, it participated in the controversial bombing of Serbia.
• The USA intervened in Nicaraguan elections twice, once to defeat the left-wing government and again to prevent its return to power.
• The USA’s actions caused resentment globally, as such policies could no longer be justified as part of the fight against communism.
• In 1994, the USA failed to intervene in Rwanda, leading to the massacre of half a million people due to delays in response.
• The USA’s failure to resolve the Arab-Israeli conflict fueled bitter Arab and Muslim hostility, with George W. Bush refusing to deal with Yasser Arafat.
• The USA repeatedly vetoed UN Security Council and General Assembly resolutions, opposing policies on human rights, food security, and terrorism control.
• In 1985, the USA was the only country to vote against a UN resolution on human rights; similarly, it voted against resolutions on Third World communication in 1987.
• Noam Chomsky argued that when the UN failed to serve American interests, it was dismissed by the USA.
• George W. Bush rejected key agreements like the 1972 Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty and 1997 Kyoto Protocols on climate change during his first year in office.
• The US economy had global implications, as decisions made in Washington and New York affected the world.
• The USA maintained control over the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund, influencing policies of states applying for loans.
• In 1995, James Wolfensohn of the World Bank pushed for debt relief, good governance, education, and health in the Third World, but Washington opposed these measures, favoring austerity.
• The international financial system was shaped to extend US financial and political power, not to promote global public good.
• By the end of 2002, the USA was seen as pursuing an imperial grand strategy, aiming to “run the show” in the new world order.

THE RISE OF GLOBAL TERRORISM

• Ken Booth and Tim Dunne define terrorism as a method of political action that uses violence or deliberately produces fear against civilians and civilian infrastructure to influence behavior, inflict punishment, or exact revenge.
• The goal of terrorism is to make the target group afraid of today, afraid of tomorrow, and afraid of each other.
• Terrorism is considered an act, not an ideology.
• Its instruments include assassination, mass murder, hijacking, bombing, kidnapping, and intimidation.
• States as well as private groups can commit acts of terrorism.
• There are issues with defining terrorism, such as whether groups engaged in a legitimate struggle for independence(e.g., Mau Mau in Kenya or the African National Congress in South Africa) are terrorists or revolutionaries and freedom fighters.
• Nelson Mandela was considered a terrorist by the white governments of South Africa and was imprisoned for 27 years, but is now respected worldwide by both blacks and whites.
• Yasser Arafat, the Palestinian leader, was labeled a terrorist by President Bush, who refused to meet him.
• Israeli government actions, similar to those perpetrated by Palestinians, were not labeled as terrorism but as legitimate actions against terrorism.
• The perception of whether actions are terrorism often depends on which side one is on and which side wins in the end.

• Abu Nidal Organization (ANO) formed in 1974 as an offshoot of Yasser Arafat’s Palestinian Liberation Organization (PLO).
• The ANO was committed to an independent Palestinian state, with bases in Lebanon and Palestine, supported by Syria, Sudan, and initially Libya.
• Responsible for attacks in about 20 countries, including airports in Rome and Vienna (1985), and several aircraft hijackings.
• The ANO has been less active since the early 1990s.
• Hezbollah (Party of God), also known as Islamic Jihad, was formed in Lebanon in 1982 after the Israeli invasion.
• Mainly composed of Shia Muslims, Hezbollah aimed to set up an Islamic state in Lebanon and expel Israel from all occupied territories in Palestine.
• Responsible for attacks on the US embassy in Beirut during the 1980s and the seizure of Western hostages in 1987, including Terry Waite.
• In the 1990s, Hezbollah extended operations to Argentina, attacking the Israeli embassy (1992) and an Israeli cultural center (1994).
• Hamas (Islamic Resistance Movement) formed in 1987 with the goal of creating an independent Islamic state of Palestine.
• Combined armed resistance to Israel with political activity, running candidates for Palestinian Authority elections.
• Hamas has massive support in the West Bank and Gaza Strip and is known for suicide bombings against Israeli targets.
• Al-Qaeda (The Base) was formed in the late 1980s during the struggle to expel Soviet forces from Afghanistan(1979).
• Al-Qaeda was financed and trained by the USA and other Western countries during the Cold War.
• After the Soviet withdrawal in 1989, Al-Qaeda aimed to establish Islamic governments, targeting the non-religious regime in Saudi Arabia, supported by the USA.
• Al-Qaeda’s secondary goal was to end US support for Israel.
• Al-Qaeda is thought to have around 5000 members and cells in multiple countries.
• The Tamil Tigers in Sri Lanka campaigned for an independent Tamil homeland in the 1980s.
• The Tigers used suicide bombings, assassinations, and attacks on public buildings and Buddhist shrines.
• In the 1990s, they had over 10,000 troops, and the struggle reached civil-war proportions.
• Most notorious action: the assassination of Indian Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi in 1991.
• A truce was arranged in 2001, with occasional violations, but by 2003, a peaceful settlement seemed possible.
• The most successful terrorist group was the African National Congress (ANC) in South Africa, formed in 1912.
• The ANC adopted violent methods in the 1960s when apartheid became more brutal.
• After a long campaign, the white supremacist government succumbed to pressure, leading to the release of Nelson Mandela (1990) and multiracial elections (1994).
• Nelson Mandela, once a “terrorist,” became the first black president of South Africa.
• Other groups include the Tupamaru Revolutionary Movement in Peru, the Islamic Group in Algeria, and the National Liberation Army in Bolivia, all seeking to remove US influence from their countries.