Chapter Info (Click Here)
Book No. – 18 (Sociology)
Book Name – Society in India (Ram Ahuja)
What’s Inside the Chapter? (After Subscription)
1. The lonians
2. Pythagoras and His Disciples
3. Heraclitus
4. Parmenides
5. Zeno
6. Anaxagoras
7. Empedocles
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LANGUAGE
The Origin of Philosophy
Political Philosophy
Chapter – 2
Table of Contents
- Casablanca (1942) featured the song “As Time Goes By,” highlighting how some words, like “kiss” and “sigh,” remain fixed in meaning.
- A kiss can be a hand-kiss, but a comforting hand-pat is not a kiss. The executioner beheading Lady Jane Grey in 1554 may have sighed or bellowed, but he couldn’t have done both simultaneously.
- Humpty Dumpty, in Through the Looking-Glass, claimed that words mean whatever the speaker chooses. Alice disagreed, suggesting that language must have fixed meanings, or communication becomes impossible.
- The essay aims to show the frailty of language and challenges in understanding science and art.
- There is confusion between science (precise knowledge) and art (driven by sentimentality), especially after Rousseau‘s influence, which led to the blending of thinking and feeling.
- Medicine is often described as “more art than science,” but it is an art focused on producing cures.
- Physics uncovers truths but doesn’t directly produce tangible outcomes; engineering uses physics for practical purposes.
- The word art is derived from Latin ars and Greek techne, meaning technique or craftsmanship. Architecture is more of an art than a science.
- Science comes from Latin scientia (knowledge), and epistemology studies how we acquire knowledge.
- Political science has been debated, especially in light of modern misunderstandings of science as a method. Aristotle advocated for recognizing that different sciences have different levels of precision.
- Aristotle argued that political science should be understood with less precision than fields like mathematics.
- The rise of the “generation gap” in the 20th century suggested communication issues between generations, especially in understanding language and values.
- Shakespeare’s works, like Romeo and Juliet, are often misinterpreted through modern views, such as the “generation gap,” rather than understanding the deeper political and societal context.
- Words like “fantastic,” “fabulous,” and “incredible” may have different meanings in different contexts, leading to communication breakdowns.
- The words science, art, and fantastic have evolved over time, as has the word philosophy.
- Two hundred years ago, it was widely accepted that philosophy began in Greece.
- Since the mid-nineteenth century, the idea that philosophy originated in India, China, Egypt, or Persia has gained popularity.
- Questions arise about the reasons for this shift: ethnocentrism, Western superiority, or the belief that all cultures are equal and should have indigenous philosophy.
- Arguments like Aristotle stealing philosophy from Alexandria are dismissed as historically inaccurate.
- The Greek word for philosophy, philosophia, has been transliterated into many languages like Latin, French, Spanish, Italian, German, and Polish.
- The Turkish language, despite its unique roots and adoption of Islam, uses the term felsefe, a transliteration of the Greek philosophia.
- This suggests that Turkish had no native equivalent of philosophy before adopting the Greek term.
- The question arises: is there a non-Greek equivalent of philosophy in languages like Hindi, Persian, Egyptian, or Mandarin?
- To qualify, the term would need to be at least 2,000 years old and align with the Greek concept of philosophy.
- Philosophy in India, China, or Persia may involve sages, priests, or poets, but these figures were not necessarily considered philosophers unless they engaged in free, radical inquiry into being or nature.
- If philosophy began outside of Greece, it should be proven that Greeks borrowed it from other cultures or that another culture’s philosophical activity predated Greek philosophy.
- Confucius, the most renowned philosopher in China, lived from 551 BCE to 479 BCE.
- Confucius sought to guide all people to live ethically, influencing Chinese society.
- Ethical principles are tied to the ethos or customs of a city, and philosophers question these norms rather than simply accept them.
- Aristotle considered books like the Nicomachean Ethics and Politics as practical sciences, which may not rise to the level of true philosophy.
- Confucius’s work, while deeply influential, may not qualify as philosophy in the strictest sense.
- Höchsmann argues that Confucius synthesized earlier works, like the Book of Changes (Yijing), but this synthesis may not constitute philosophy.
- The Yijing focuses on the correlation between man and nature and suggests an ontology of process, which could be philosophical but does not fully align with Western philosophical standards.
- The Book of Odes contains over 300 poems from the Shang Dynasty through Confucius’s time, exploring human emotions like love, longing, and desire.
- These themes, while poetic, may not fully represent the dialectical, problem-solving nature of Western philosophy, which seeks progress in understanding being.
- Plato’s Phaedrus contrasts romantic sentiment with the philosophical examination of eros, highlighting a progression toward understanding love.
- Confucius’s focus on ethical guidelines could be seen as a great influence but not necessarily an example of philosophy.
- Edmund Waller’s poem “Go, Lovely Rose” presents an example of erotic rhetoric with its exploration of love, beauty, and mortality.
- Waller’s poem touches on erotic urgency and the bittersweet recognition of love’s fleeting nature.
- Plato’s Phaedrus contrasts with Waller’s poem by rationally examining eros, the nature of love, through Socrates and Phaedrus, leading to an exploration of truth beyond emotional expression.
- Homer’s Iliad appeals to inspiration via the muse, unlike the philosophical inquiry seen in Plato’s work.
- Waller, like Lysias, appeals to inspiration in his poetry, while Plato seeks a deeper philosophical examination of emotional experiences.
- Philosophy and poetry are distinguished as separate pursuits, raising questions about the origins of philosophy and its relationship to eros and love.
- The comparison is drawn between Confucius’ teaching of the Book of Odes and Plato’s dialogues, questioning if Confucius’ teaching style is more like Waller’s lyrical poetry or Plato’s rational dissection.
- Desire in Lysias’ speech is sublimated by Socrates into a pursuit of truth, indicating that truth is the highest human desire.
- The question is raised whether Confucius’ teaching of the odes fits within the philosophical tradition or falls into a different category altogether.
- Fung Yu-lan’s interpretation of Chinese philosophy positions it as central to Chinese education, claiming philosophy occupies a role similar to religion in other civilizations.
- Fung asserts that in China, philosophy was a universal concern, with children taught the Four Books early on as part of their education, raising questions about the extent and nature of philosophical education in China.
- Fung’s claim that everyone studied philosophy leads to suspicion about the depth and nature of that philosophy, especially if it includes a broader ethical and civic education.
- Aristotle’s views on education highlight that philosophy is not for everyone, and education for the many must focus on civic matters rather than abstract philosophy.
- Fung’s description of Chinese philosophy as not a profession undermines its distinction from liberal education or education for citizenship, making it unclear whether it fits the Western notion of philosophy.
- James Legge‘s translations of Chinese classics introduced Chinese literature to the West, positioning him as a key figure in the history of Chinese philosophy in Western scholarship.
- Legge’s translations, such as Confucius‘ name “K’ung Fu-tze” into “Philosopher Kung,” raise issues about the accuracy of translating philosophical terms from Chinese into English.
- The Chinese word for Confucius’ name includes the meaning of master or teacher, but translating it as “philosopher” assumes the existence of a direct equivalent to the Greek concept of philosophy.
- Confucius’ title as fuzi may imply scholar or even a pedant, suggesting that the label philosopher may not appropriately apply to him.
- Philosophical inquiry into whether Confucius was a philosopher is necessary for understanding the broader implications of Chinese thought and its relationship to Western philosophical traditions.
- Mencius (372–289 b.c.) was a follower of Confucius and helped describe Confucius’ early life and teachings.
- Confucius had a modest childhood and learned various practical arts to earn a living.
- At twenty-one, Confucius began his career as a teacher, focusing on educating young and inquiring minds about right conduct and government.
- He hoped to find a ruler who would follow his teachings but was not successful in this endeavor.
- A disciple asked Confucius what should be done first if entrusted with state government; Confucius responded, “The rectification of names.”
- Rectification of names may refer to clarifying discourse and the clear statement of universals.
- Confucius’s teachings could be viewed as a form of political philosophy, but they did not delve into an examination of princedom or justice in the manner of Western philosophers like Socrates and Plato.
- The Western concept of political philosophy involves examining justice, questioning its nature and application, which Confucius did not explore in depth.
- Early Western thought regarded philosophy as originating in Greece, a view largely unchallenged until the 17th century, and more definitively questioned in the 19th century.
- James Legge is noted for calling Chinese philosophy ancient without critical justification, contributing to the debate on whether non-Western cultures can be credited with philosophical traditions.
- Montesquieu (1689–1755) was an exception in recognizing non-Western philosophical traditions.