The period from 1884 to 1914 separates the nineteenth century (ending with the scramble for Africa and birth of pan-movements) from the twentieth century (beginning with the First World War).

This era is known as the period of Imperialism, characterized by stagnant quiet in Europe but rapid developments in Asia and Africa.

Some features of this period resemble totalitarian phenomena of the twentieth century, making it a possible preparatory stage for later catastrophes.

Despite its proximity, the period still feels part of the nineteenth century, evoking nostalgia as a “golden age of security” where even horrors had some moderation and respectability.

This contrasts sharply with later horrors such as concentration camps and death factories, which are far removed from the general atmosphere of this era.

The key event in inner-Europe during imperialism was the political emancipation of the bourgeoisie, which until then had economic power but did not seek political rule.

The bourgeoisie developed alongside the nation-state, which ruled over a class-divided society.

Even as the bourgeoisie became the ruling class, political decisions remained with the state.

The conflict between state and society became open when the nation-state could no longer support capitalist economic growth.

During the imperialist period, neither the state nor the bourgeoisie achieved a decisive victory in this power struggle.

National institutions resisted imperialist brutality and megalomania, and bourgeois attempts to exploit the state’s violence for economic aims were only partially successful.

This balance changed when the German bourgeoisie fully backed the Hitler movement, aiming to rule with the mob’s support.

However, this came too late; the bourgeoisie destroyed the nation-state but achieved a Pyrrhic victory.

The mob proved capable of handling politics independently, ultimately liquidating the bourgeoisie and all other classes and institutions.