INTRODUCTION

• Nicolo Machiavelli was born in Florence on 3rd May 1469, the second son of Bernardo di Nicolo Machiavelli, a lawyer, and Bartolommea di Stefano Nelli, both members of the old Florentine nobility.
• His life spans three distinct periods, each marked by important phases in the history of Florence.
• His youth coincided with the height of Florence’s power under Lorenzo de’ Medici, known as Il Magnifico.
• The downfall of the Medici occurred in 1494, the same year Machiavelli entered public service.
• Florence was then a Republic, free from Medici rule until 1512, when the Medici regained power, and Machiavelli lost his office.
• The Medici ruled Florence from 1512 to 1527, when they were once again expelled, marking the time of Machiavelli’s literary activity.
• Machiavelli died on 22nd June 1527, just weeks after the Medici were expelled, without regaining public office.
• Machiavelli’s youth (1469-1494) is not well documented, but he grew up in a Florence split between the austere influence of Savonarola and the grandeur of Lorenzo de’ Medici.
• Savonarola‘s influence on Machiavelli was minor, as Machiavelli often referenced the Medici‘s magnificence in his writings, especially in ‘The Prince’.
• Machiavelli, in his ‘History of Florence’, describes the young men of his time as overly concerned with appearance, wit, and excess, rather than serious study.
• In a letter to his son, Machiavelli emphasized the importance of study and self-improvement, urging him to pursue letters and music to gain honor.
• The second period of Machiavelli’s life was spent in public service during the Republic of Florence (1494-1512).
• Machiavelli served in various roles, ultimately being appointed Chancellor and Secretary to the Second Chancery.
• His first diplomatic mission was in 1499 to Catherina Sforza, from whom he learned the importance of earning the people’s confidence rather than relying on fortresses.
• In 1500, Machiavelli was sent to France to negotiate with Louis XII regarding the continuation of the war against Pisa.
• Louis XII’s failures in statecraft, as noted by Machiavelli, influenced his understanding of princes and the importance of promises and faith in politics.
• Machiavelli’s career was shaped by his interactions with Pope Alexander VI, Cesare Borgia, and Pope Julius II, who appeared prominently in his writings, especially in ‘The Prince’.
• Cesare Borgia is featured as a model for usurpers wishing to maintain power, though his failure ultimately proved the limits of his strategies.
• After Pope Pius III’s death in 1503, Machiavelli was sent to Rome to witness the election of Julius II, who later destroyed Cesare Borgia’s influence.
• Machiavelli observed the boldness of Julius II, remarking that fortune and women favor the bold rather than the cautious.
• His role in 1507-1508 involved dealings with Emperor Maximilian and a failure to recognize the importance of human agents and character in achieving goals.
• Machiavelli was involved in the League of Cambrai (1508), a European alliance aimed at crushing the Venetian Republic, which ultimately lost all its power in one day.
• Florence was caught in a difficult position during these events, especially after Pope Julius II formed the Holy Leaguein 1511, which led to the Medici’s return to power in 1512.
• The Medici’s return on 1st September 1512 marked the end of the Republic, and Machiavelli was dismissed from office.
• Despite his literary activity, he died without ever regaining his former political position.

LITERATURE AND DEATH

• After the return of the Medici in 1512, Machiavelli hoped to retain his office but was dismissed on 7th November 1512.
• He was accused of involvement in a failed conspiracy against the Medici, imprisoned, and tortured.
• Pope Leo X, part of the new Medici regime, secured Machiavelli’s release, and he retired to his property at San Casciano, near Florence, focusing on literature.
• In a letter to Francesco Vettori (13th December 1513), Machiavelli described his daily life, where he would switch from his peasant clothes to noble court dress to immerse himself in the study of the ancients.
• He spent his evenings in study, engaged in deep reflection on principality, and began writing his work ‘The Prince’, focusing on the acquisition and maintenance of power.
• Machiavelli dedicated the work to Giuliano de’ Medici, though it was later changed to Lorenzo de’ Medici, and it is unclear whether Lorenzo ever received or read it.
• ‘The Prince’ was plagiarized during Machiavelli’s lifetime and was never published by him. The text remains disputable.
• In his letter, Machiavelli emphasized his years of study in statecraft, his loyalty, and his honesty, reflected in his poverty as a testament to his integrity.
• After completing ‘The Prince’, Machiavelli began writing the ‘Discourse on the First Decade of Titus Livius’, which complements his work on statecraft.
• His literary works continued until 1518, when he took a small commission from Florentine merchants in Genoa.
• In 1519, the Medici rulers of Florence sought Machiavelli’s input on a new constitution, but the proposed changes were never implemented.
• In 1520, Machiavelli became more active in Florentine literary society and wrote his ‘Art of War’.
• He also received a commission from Cardinal de’ Medici to write the ‘History of Florence’, a task he completed by 1525.
• The Medici may have offered him the commission due to his return to popular favor and the need to keep him occupied.
• When Machiavelli finished the ‘History of Florence’, he took it to Rome to present it to Giuliano de’ Medici, who had become Pope Clement VII.
• ‘The Prince’ was written for the Medici after their return to power in Florence in 1513, while ‘History of Florence’was dedicated to them in 1525, as their downfall loomed.
• The battle of Pavia in 1525 marked the end of French rule in Italy, and the sack of Rome followed, leading to the Medici‘s temporary expulsion from Florence.
• While absent from Florence, Machiavelli hoped to regain his old office when the Medici were driven out.
• Upon returning to Florence, Machiavelli fell ill and died on 22nd June 1527, before regaining his position.

THE MAN AND HIS WORKS

• The exact location of Machiavelli’s remains is unknown, but a cenotaph has been erected in Santa Croce in Florence, honoring him alongside other prominent figures of the city.
• Machiavelli’s works are recognized for contributing to Italy’s unity and the beginning of its Renaissance within Europe.
• Although his name is often associated with negative connotations, this harsh interpretation was unknown during his lifetime.
• Recent scholarly research has led to a more reasonable interpretation of his works, dispelling the notion of Machiavellias an “unholy necromancer.”
• Machiavelli was a man of great observation, acuteness, and industry, recording everything he encountered and incorporating it into his literary works during his political retirement.
• He was not seen as a successful statesman and author combination, having experienced setbacks in his political life, including being misled by Caterina Sforza, ignored by Louis XII, and overawed by Cesare Borgia.
• His embassies were often unsuccessful, his attempts to fortify Florence failed, and the soldiers he raised were notably cowardly.
• In his personal affairs, he was timid and time-serving, unwilling to risk association with influential figures like Soderini for fear of compromising himself.
• His connection with the Medici was suspicious, and it appears that Giuliano recognized his strength as a writer rather than a political figure, assigning him the task of writing the ‘History of Florence’.
• Machiavelli’s literary works stand as his only domain where he did not experience failure.
• ‘The Prince’ continues to provoke debate, as its themes of governance still address timeless conflicts between rulers and the ruled.
• The ethics in ‘The Prince’ reflect those of Machiavelli’s time, yet they remain relevant as long as European governments rely more on material than moral forces.
• The historical incidents in ‘The Prince’ serve to illustrate Machiavelli’s theories on government and conduct.
• The work highlights the deception of people, with the greedy still falling prey to their desires, just as in Alexander VI’s era.
• The cloak of religion continues to conceal vices, as Machiavelli exposed in the character of Ferdinand of Aragon.
• People often fail to see things as they are and instead perceive them how they wish, leading to their ruin.
• Prudence in politics lies in choosing the least dangerous course, acknowledging that there are no perfectly safe options.
• Machiavelli affirms that necessary wars are just, and a nation’s arms are justified when fighting is the only option left.
• Unlike later ideals of government as a moral force, Machiavelli focused on pragmatic political realities rather than idealism.
• ‘The Prince’ contributes little to the high moral arguments about government, instead offering an unvarnished look at reality.
• Despite its artistic and historical interest, ‘The Prince’ remains of lasting value because it deals with the great principles that continue to guide the relationship between nations and rulers.
• In translating ‘The Prince’, the aim was to provide a literal rendering of the original text, prioritizing fidelity to the author’s intended meaning over modern stylistic preferences.
• Machiavelli’s writing is serious, plain, and lofty, with careful word choice and deliberate structure.
• ‘The Prince’ offers rational justification for every word and its position within the text.
• The task of translating this work was easier for Elizabethans, as the English language of that time was closer to the Italian used by Machiavelli.
• For modern readers, translating certain phrases, like ‘intrattenere’, is more difficult as the meaning may be unclear to contemporary audiences.
• The aim was to maintain the brevity and clarity of the original Italian while ensuring accurate meaning was conveyed.
• The translation might occasionally feel rough, but the goal is to lead the reader to the author’s intended meaning.
• Machiavelli’s works include various writings such as ‘The Prince’, ‘History of Florence’, ‘The Art of War’, and numerous comedies, poems, and discourses.
• Some works were published in various editions, including Aldo’s (1546), Cambiagi’s (1782-85), and Silvestri’s (1820-22) collections.
• Minor works include letters and additional writings such as ‘Belfagor arcidiavolo’ (1515) and ‘Vita di Castruccio Castracani da Lucca’ (1520).
• Notable editions of Machiavelli’s letters and writings were compiled by F. L. Polidori (1852) and G. Canestrini(1857).
• The Dedication of ‘The Prince’ is addressed to Lorenzo Di Piero de’ Medici, with Machiavelli offering a reflection of his devotion and admiration for the prince.
• Machiavelli presents his work as a humble gift, offering a concise summary of his accumulated knowledge and experiences.
• He expresses confidence that the truth of his work, rather than its external embellishments, will make it acceptable.
• Machiavelli compares his approach to governing and understanding the people with the perspective of an artist capturing both landscapes and lofty mountains.
• He implores Lorenzo to read the work carefully and reflects on his own suffering caused by persistent misfortune.

CHAPTER I. HOW MANY KINDS OF PRINCIPALITIES THERE ARE, AND BY WHAT MEANS THEY ARE ACQUIRED

• States and powers that have ruled over men are either republics or principalities.
• Principalities can be classified as either hereditary or new.
• Hereditary principalities are those where the ruling family has been established for a long time.
• New principalities are either entirely new or annexed to the hereditary state of the ruler.
• Examples of entirely new dominions include Milan under Francesco Sforza.
• Annexed principalities are territories added to an existing state, like the kingdom of Naples to the kingdom of Spain.
• Acquired dominions may be accustomed to living under a prince or they may have traditionally been free.
• These territories can be acquired by the prince’s own arms, the arms of others, fortune, or ability.

CHAPTER II. CONCERNING HEREDITARY PRINCIPALITIES

• The discussion will focus only on principalities, leaving out republics as they are addressed elsewhere.
• It is easier to maintain hereditary states, especially those long accustomed to the ruling family, than new ones.
• A prince in a hereditary state only needs to avoid transgressing the customs of his ancestors and act prudently to maintain his position.
• A prince with average powers can usually keep his state unless confronted with extraordinary force.
• If a hereditary prince is deprived of his state, he can regain it if something bad happens to the usurper.
• Example: Duke of Ferrara was able to withstand attacks from the Venetians and Pope Julius due to his long establishment in power.
• Hereditary princes have less reason to offend their subjects and are more likely to be loved.
• If the prince does not possess extraordinary vices, it is expected that his subjects will be well-disposed towards him.
• In hereditary states, the memories and motivations for change fade over time, as each change creates a foundation for future changes.

CHAPTER III. CONCERNING MIXED PRINCIPALITIES

• Difficulties arise when acquiring a new principality, especially if it is a composite state.
• People are often willing to change rulers, hoping for better conditions, but they may end up worse off.
• New rulers tend to burden the newly acquired state with soldiers and other hardships, which leads to discontent.
• The new prince creates enemies among those harmed in the process of acquisition and struggles to keep supporterswho helped him rise, due to his inability to fulfill their expectations.
• Even with a strong military, a new prince needs the goodwill of the native population to maintain power.
• Louis XII of France quickly lost Milan after occupying it, as those who had opened the gates were disappointed and rebelled.
• After the second acquisition, rebellious provinces are harder to lose because the prince can use the rebellion to punishenemies and strengthen his position.
• Duke Lodovico was able to raise insurrections against France the first time, but the second time, it required a broader coalition to remove the French.
• Dominions added to an existing state can be easier to hold if the region is similar in language and customs, as seen with regions like Brittany, Burgundy, and Gascony.
• To maintain such regions, the new prince must ensure the family of the former ruler is destroyed and avoid altering laws and taxes.
• States acquired in foreign regions with different languages and customs present greater challenges. A prince must exhibit great energy to retain control.
• A prince should reside in the newly acquired state to ensure its stability, as seen in the case of the Turks in Greece.
• Direct presence allows for immediate intervention in emerging disorders, while absence only reveals large problems later.
• Residing in the state prevents corruption by officials and increases the chances of gaining the love or fear of the subjects.
• Colonies can be established as keys to holding a new state, being inexpensive and only offending a small minority of the local population.
• These colonies are faithful, causing little harm, and the affected minority is powerless to resist.
• Crushing or well treating people is crucial, as those who are lightly wronged can seek revenge, while those severely injured are unable to retaliate.
• Maintaining armed men instead of colonies leads to higher costs, consuming all income from the state, making the acquisition a loss.
• Such garrisons exasperate the population, causing hostility, and making enemies who can still cause harm.
• Colonies are far more useful than garrisons for maintaining control, as they cost less and are more effective.
• A prince acquiring a country with differing language and customs should aim to become the head and defender of weaker neighbors while weakening stronger ones.
• If a foreign, powerful entity gains a foothold, it is often due to local discontent, leading to the rise of such powers.
• The Romans were invited into Greece by the Aetolians and other states, but their strategy was to keep minor powers friendly while weakening stronger ones.
• Once a foreign power enters a country, the subject states often rally to it out of hatred for the existing ruler.
• A wise ruler must prevent the foreign power from gaining too much strength and use local support to maintain control.
• Romans managed conquered territories by maintaining colonies, building friendly relations with smaller states, and keeping larger ones in check.
• They foresaw potential conflicts and dealt with them early, avoiding major wars by managing smaller problems before they escalated.
• The key to success was dealing with trouble early and not waiting until it was too large to fix.
• Louis XII of France made mistakes in his conduct in Italy, especially by acting contrary to the strategies of effective rulers.
• Venetians brought Louis into Italy to gain Lombardy, but this led to him controlling much of Italy.
• Louis could have secured his position by maintaining relationships with his weak allies but failed to do so.
• He weakened himself by supporting Pope Alexander in occupying Romagna, thereby gaining a stronger Church as an enemy.
• Louis XII‘s decision to divide the kingdom of Naples with Spain was a serious error, reducing his own influence and bringing in a rival power.
• France could have attacked Naples directly or avoided dividing it, but instead chose a weak course that led to France’s decline.
• Louis made five mistakes: destroying minor powers, strengthening a major power (the Church), introducing foreignpowers, not settling in Italy, and not sending colonies.
• A sixth error occurred when Louis allowed the Venetians to be ruined, undermining France’s position in Lombardy.
• Louis should not have weakened the Venetians, as they could have been a counterforce to Spain and the Church.
• War cannot be avoided, only postponed, and making compromises to avoid it can lead to greater disadvantages later.
• Louis XII’s decision to assist the Pope in return for a divorce and the cardinalship shows his mistakes in statecraft.
• By failing to follow prudent strategies, Louis XII lost Lombardy and undermined his own position.
• The Church and Spain grew powerful due to France’s mistakes, leading to France’s eventual decline in Italy.
• A general rule emerges: the one who causes another to become powerful often ruins himself because those raised to power either by astuteness or force are distrusted.

CHAPTER IV. WHY THE KINGDOM OF DARIUS, CONQUERED BY ALEXANDER, DID NOT REBEL AGAINST THE SUCCESSORS OF ALEXANDER AT HIS DEATH

• States are governed in two ways: either by a prince with servants or by a prince with barons who hold power through ancestry.
• Barons have their own states and subjects who recognize them as lords, unlike servants who owe their position to the prince’s favor.
• Servant-governed states like the Turkish empire are more difficult to seize but easier to hold once conquered, because the prince has no powerful barons or allies.
• Baron-governed states like France are easier to conquer by winning over a discontented baron, but more difficult to maintain due to the power of remaining barons.
• In the Turkish empire, the prince’s ministers are bound to him and difficult to corrupt, preventing revolts and making the state united under the ruler.
• Once the Turk is defeated and his army is destroyed, only the royal family poses a threat, which can be eliminated, leaving the state secure.
• In France, gaining control requires managing the powerful barons, but these same barons pose difficulties in maintaining power after conquest, and even extermination of the royal family doesn’t guarantee peace.
• States like France lead to constant revolts due to the residual power of barons and their ability to lead new movements against the new ruler.
• A state with barons, once conquered, is hard to hold because those who helped you can later rebel, and those you defeated will never accept your rule.
• Darius’ kingdom, like the Turkish empire, was easy for Alexander to conquer because it was a servant-governedstate.
• After Darius’ defeat, Alexander’s conquest remained secure as there were no powerful local powers left to challenge him.
• Alexander’s successors would have maintained control of the empire if they had remained united because the state had no internal rebellion once Darius’ family was eliminated.
• Rome faced rebellions in its early conquests due to the division of power among many principalities, making it hard to hold control.
• Over time, the power of Rome grew, and the memory of former local rulers faded, securing Roman dominance.
• Rome eventually controlled Spain, France, and Greece, despite early rebellions, because of the continuous authority of the empire and the extermination of rival families.
• Alexander’s easy retention of the Empire of Asia compared to the difficulties others had is due to the uniformity of the subjects’ state, which was more cohesive than the fragmented states of the Romans.
• The difficulties of conquest are not due to the conqueror’s ability, but to the structure of the subject state.

CHAPTER V. CONCERNING THE WAY TO GOVERN CITIES OR PRINCIPALITIES WHICH LIVED UNDER THEIR OWN LAWS BEFORE THEY WERE ANNEXED

• When acquiring states used to freedom and their own laws, there are three main ways to hold them:
  1. Ruining them.
  2. Residing there in person.
  3. Allowing them to keep their laws, paying tribute, and establishing an oligarchy to keep them loyal.
• The oligarchy created by the prince knows it cannot survive without his support, making it a more stable form of control.
• States accustomed to freedom are easier to control through their own citizens than through external means.
• The Spartans held Athens and Thebes by establishing oligarchies but ultimately lost them.
• The Romans, in contrast, dismantled rebellious cities like Capua, Carthage, and Numantia to prevent rebellion and maintain control.
• The Romans attempted to hold Greece by allowing its freedom, like the Spartans did, but were forced to dismantle several cities to secure their dominance.
• States used to freedom will always have a rallying point in their liberty and ancient privileges, making them difficult to maintain control over if not sufficiently weakened.
• Cities that have been held in bondage (like Pisa under the Florentines) will not forget their desire for freedom and will rally at every opportunity.
• When a city is accustomed to a prince and his family is destroyed, the people are slow to rebel as they are used to obeying a single ruler and cannot easily govern themselves.
• In such cases, the people are less likely to take up arms, and a new prince can gain their support more easily.
• Republics, however, are more vital, with greater hatred and a stronger desire for vengeance over the loss of their freedom.
• In republics, the memory of liberty is harder to extinguish, and they will constantly fight to regain it, making it safer to either destroy or reside in the city to maintain control.