• The 17th century marked a significant shift in humanity’s understanding of the universe, moving away from the long-standing Earth-centered view to a heliocentric perspective where Earth was just one of many planets orbiting the Sun.
• This new view revealed that the Sun itself was one of countless stars, leading to a demystification of the universe and the emergence of a mechanistic worldview in the second half of the 17th century.
• The scientific revolution, a process of establishing this new view of the universe and advancing scientific knowledge, resolved intellectual crises and prompted a reevaluation of moral, religious, and natural ideas.
• The origins of modern science can be traced to the continuous interaction between humans and nature, with an emphasis on studying and understanding the physical world.
• Scientific method played a crucial role in the development of modern science, characterized by a focus on observing natural phenomena, formulating laws and principles based on experiments, and drawing conclusions.
• The 17th century saw remarkable intellectual advancements in mathematics, astronomy, and physics as part of the rise of science, referred to as natural philosophy during that era.
• The Scientific Revolution, with its scientific and intellectual changes, was instrumental in shaping the modern world.

According to J.D. Bernal, the Scientific Revolution can be divided into three phases:

1. Copernicus Phase:

   • This phase marked the replacement of the geocentric view of the universe with the heliocentric concept, initiated by Nicolaus Copernicus.

2. Scientific Foundation Phase:

   • In this stage, scientists like Tycho Brahe, Johannes Kepler, and Galileo Galilei provided a scientific basis for the heliocentric view through their observations and discoveries.

3. Newton and Descartes Phase:

   • The third phase, led by Isaac Newton and René Descartes, saw the formation of scientific societies and the institutionalization of science within European society.

Origins

• The origins of science can be traced back to ancient civilizations, with the Greeks, including scholars like Aristotle, Ptolemy, and Galen, significantly influencing scientific thought.
• Medieval theologians in Europe continued to study the natural world based on the ideas of ancient Greek philosophers, particularly Aristotle.
• Aristotle’s geocentric view of the universe, with Earth at the center, posed challenges in understanding natural phenomena and motion.
• Some scientists in the 14th century proposed the concept of “impetus” to explain motion.
• Ptolemy’s model featured crystalline spheres that revolved around Earth in a hierarchical manner, with celestial bodies moving in perfect circles.
• Galen’s theories on human anatomy were based on incorrect animal anatomy, leading to incorrect conclusions about human physiology.
• Medieval Europe was not a period of scientific darkness; scholars preserved and expanded upon the knowledge of Greek science.
• The knowledge of mathematics was acquired from Arab sources, and Platonic and Hippocratic ideas influenced medical and scientific thought.
• Theories and practices related to “magic” included alchemy, atomism, astrology, Hermeticism, and Cabala.
• The Renaissance marked a period of renewed interest in art and science, with artists incorporating mathematical principles into their works and anatomists making significant discoveries about the human body.
• In the 16th century, practical needs in European society, such as fortification, mining, navigation, and mapmaking, led to a demand for scientific skills.
• The Renaissance introduced the concept of the universe as an independent entity, but it did not lead to a full scientific revolution.
• The rise of modern science in the 17th century was characterized by the formulation of general theories based on experiments in fields like physics, mechanics, and astronomy.
• Developments during the Renaissance created skilled artisans and engineers but did not immediately give rise to true scientists. Technologies like the mechanical clock, microscope, telescope, barometer, and air pump contributed to the development of modern science.