• In India, thousands of years, primitive tribes persisted in forests and hills, with minimal contact with populations in the plains and centers of civilization.
• According to Haimendorf (1977), this coexistence was possible due to low population pressure and advanced communities not feeling the urge to impose their values on tribes outside the orbit of Hindu civilization.
• The situation changed with the arrival of the British in India, who consolidated their position and gradually disrupted tribal life.
• The British needed to open up the country for effective governance, leading to the creation of a communication system (postal, telegraph, roadways, railway).
• Niharranjan Ray (1972) argues that the colonial rulers needed a common administrative system to draw the entire country within its orbit, requiring sending officers, police, and the military to even the most remote tribal areas.
• The British colonialism focused on military conquest until 1887, requiring control of tribal areas through military and political strategies.
• S.C. Dube (1972) supports this by saying that the British maintained law and order and used a paternalistic and protective attitude toward tribes, though their need to govern led to sending officials, engineers, contractors, and traders into tribal regions.
• This introduced a money economy among the tribes, which was not initially harmful but led to land hunger from non-British vested interests, affecting the tribes’ agriculture, hunting, and fishing rights.
• The tribal-non-tribal friction remained limited due to the British policy of exclusion or partial exclusion, keeping economic competition low and allowing tribes to preserve their distinct lifestyles.
• Christian missionaries had limited influence, mainly in the north-eastern region and some parts of Central India.
• Isolation helped tribes preserve their traditions, but also hindered their ability to cope with modern economic systems, leaving them vulnerable to exploitation by land-hungry peasants and moneylenders.
• Increasing interference led to clashes and uprisings, which continue in various forms today.
• The British need for detailed knowledge of tribal communities led to the work of early ethnographers such as Dalton, Risley, Thurston, Enthoven, Crooke, and Russell.
• These ethnographers were also administrators and their studies of tribal societies laid the foundation for modern Indian anthropology and policies to manage tribal communities.
• Despite numerous uprisings and participation in the freedom struggle, tribal people remained on the periphery of national consciousness and were largely ignored by social and political thinkers of the late 19th and early 20th centuries.
• Niharranjan Ray (1972) notes that the Indian National Congress did not address the socio-political issues of the tribal people, although attention was given to lower classes and untouchables from the 1880s.
• Post-Gandhian leadership: Jawaharlal Nehru became a vocal advocate for the tribals, condemning the imposition of Hindu ways of living on them.
• Nehru argued that tribes, like Muslims, Christians, and Parsis, should be allowed to follow their own social systems, without forced assimilation.
• Gandhi was instrumental in raising tribal issues to a national level, emphasizing the need for tribals to preserve their distinct lifestyles and cultural identities.
• The issue of converting tribes to the norms of the majority society was viewed as unjust, and tribes should have the right to follow their traditional ways without external interference.

• Independence of India brought significant changes, particularly in terms of the welfare and development of tribal people, which is reflected in the Indian Constitution.
• Tribal people have awakened from centuries of isolation and are now experiencing rapid changes.
• Veirier Elwin notes that roads are reaching previously inaccessible areas, and education is revolutionizing tribal socialand economic conditions, creating new demands and skills.
• The changes happening in tribal villages are initiated by the government, outsiders, and the tribes themselves, creating an evolutionary crisis in tribal history.
• A significant portion of the tribal population has realized the need to address their issues and is actively responding.
• Tribals demand that ‘progress’ and ‘advancement’ should not disrupt their traditional harmony and way of life, preferring assistance through their own institutions.
• A tribal’s home and family are seen as the foundation for their future welfare.
• Elwin (1963) emphasizes that freedom should include the right to decide how to shape their future, and official programmes should allow them to organize their own development.
• A crucial issue for tribals today is the harmonization of national and tribal interests, which is not easily achievable.
• Sensitive issues must be handled carefully, as even minor mistakes can lead to violent reactions.
• S.C. Dube suggests that tribes must find a way to integrate into Indian society without compromising their honor, while maintaining the integrity and strength of India as a nation.
• Tribal competence must be developed to help them face the challenges of a growing society and an uncertain future.
• Tribal people are entering a new era alongside the rest of Indian society, but they are determined to protect the harmony of their life.
• They deserve better understanding and appreciation from planners, administrators, and the general public regarding their way of life, values, and challenges.

• India is described as a ‘melting pot’ of race and tribes, with a complex history that is difficult to organize chronologically.
• Fuchs (1973) states that the history of tribes in India, especially before the Aryan invasion, is shrouded in obscurity.
• Stone implements from the Lower Palaeolithic period have been found, but skeletal remains from these times are still missing.
• Human fossils from later periods are too few to draw any conclusions about the racial history of India in prehistoric times.
• It is clear that the aboriginal tribes of India do not form a uniform race, as they entered India from various directions and belong to different racial groups.
• Attempts to categorize Indian aboriginal tribes into racial groups (by Risley, Guha, Majumdar) have not been successful, suggesting more anthropological research is needed.
• Despite limited archaeological and palaeontological data, historical records help in understanding the rise and decline of tribal life, particularly from the Indus Valley civilization onward.
• Indus Valley Civilization is believed to have gradually developed on Indian soil, not imported by foreign invaders.
• The rise of the Indus Valley Civilization was likely influenced by the favorable ecological situation and the fertility of the soil.
• The civilization likely had a mixed racial composition, with evidence suggesting racial changes over time.
• The decline of the Indus Valley civilization may have been caused by an alteration in the course of the Indus River, leading to flooding and silting of fields.
• The old theory that Aryan invaders destroyed the Indus Valley civilization has been revised, with the end of the civilization now dated around 1750 B.C.
• Aryan immigration in the second millennium B.C. was a profound event that shaped India’s culture and history, but the exact timeline and evidence for this migration are still unclear.
• The Rigvedic period (2000-1000 B.C.) saw the entry of Aryan tribes into the north-western parts of India, leading to conflicts with non-Aryan tribes.
• The Aryans (e.g., Indra, Vishnu) fought against Dasyus and other tribes, as depicted in Rigvedic texts.
• K.S. Singh (1996) notes that Indian tribes have not remained passive but have actively participated in historical processes, contributing to the growth of Hinduism and cultural fusion.
• Fusion of Aryan and non-Aryan tribes continued through the Vedic periods, with increasing Aryanization of tribes and the tribalization of Aryans.
• The epics of Ramayan and Mahabharat refer to several tribes, including Sudras, Abhiras, Dravidas, and Sabaras.
• Sabras are the most familiar tribe mentioned in Aitareya Brahman, and Sabari is portrayed as a symbol of the contributions of tribes to Indian life.
• Many tribes claimed involvement in the Mahabharat, such as Eklavya (a Bhil), Munda, Naga, and Ghatotkacha.
• Ghatotkacha was born to a tribal wife, and Arjuna married a Naga princess, highlighting the integration of tribal elements into the epic’s narrative.
• The Nagas played a significant role in the early historical period of India, but their influence is now largely absorbed into Hindu society.
• The Nagas of Nagaland are not related to the ancient Naga tribes; their influence can still be seen in the celebration of Nagpanchami, snake-cult motifs in Hinduism, and places like Takshila, Nagpur, and Nalanda.
• The Mahabharat can be seen as a Naga story, with many references to Naga influence on Indian culture.
• Buddha converted some Nagas, and the Naga cult survived in areas like Kashmir and central India until the second century A.D.
• Tribal subjugation began during the earliest historical periods, with figures like Ajatshatru and Alexanderconquering tribal republics and pockets.
• The Arthasastra mentions Atvikas, tribes seen as potential troublemakers, and Asoka showed compassion towards forest tribes while threatening rebellious northern tribes.
• Sharma (1961) discusses the social structure during this period, where Dhamasutra (600-300 BC) and Manusmriti(200 BC-200 AD) continued the fusion and assimilation of tribes into the broader Hindu society.
• Mixed castes were often described as the offspring of different caste unions, and tribes like Nishadas, Medas, Andhras, Madgas, and others were Brahminized and categorized as mixed castes, leading to their downgrading.
• The Chandalas were assigned menial tasks, further illustrating the process of tribal downgrading within society.
• Tribes participated in sub-Puranic and epic traditions, with epic heroes like Rama, Sita, and Ravana having an impact on their myths and lores.
• The Gonds claim descent from Ravana, and the Mundas refer to themselves as Manoako, inspired by Manu.
• Ancient Sanskrit literature describes tribes in both romantic and friendly perspectives, such as in the Panchatantra, Kathasarit Sagar, and Vishnu Puran, where they are depicted as “dwarfish with flat noses.”
• Feudal period (400-1000 AD) saw the Hinduisation of tribal chiefs, with Brahmin priests creating genealogies for them and driving the Sanskritisation of tribal societies.
• The Muslim invasions in the 11th-12th centuries led to the Rajput influx into tribal areas and the destruction of tribal pockets, with Rajputs like Parmar and Chandels replacing local tribal rulers.
• During Muslim rule (12th-18th century), Turko-Afghan and Mughal rulers mostly secured formal allegiances from tribal chiefs, as seen with the subjugation of Chotanagpur and the Raja of Khukra.
• Daud Khan subjugated the Cheros of Palamau around 1661 A.D.; tribal areas of Assam were also subdued by Muslim generals.
• The conversion of tribals to Islam occurred, particularly on the north-west frontier, with saints like Pir Syed Shah Kamal and Pir Syed Mohammed working among tribes like the Nats and Kols.
• Bhakti movement streams like Chaitanya Mahaprabhu‘s visit to Jharkhand and Vaishnava preachers converting tribals like Munda and Oraon marked a significant religious transformation.
• The Bhuinyas were completely Hinduised, and the roots of the Bhagat movements among tribals can be traced to the Vaishnava influence.
• The conversion of the Ahoms in Assam to Hinduism exemplifies the impact of these religious movements on tribal societies.
• The arrival of British colonialists brought modern technology, new approaches, and vested interests that impacted tribal areas, especially along the sea coast and in Bihar and Bengal.
• The construction of the Grand Trunk Road through tribal areas increased the influx of aliens, including merchants, moneylenders, and land grabbers.
• The growing population pressure and the exploitation by Zamindars led to the migration of peasants and artisansinto tribal areas.
• Christian missions also expanded their influence in tribal areas during this time.
• The tribal endurance and patience were exhausted by the breakdown of their societal order in the 18th century, leading to uprisings like the Munda uprising (1789-1901), Santhal insurrection (1855-56), Bhil rebellion (1879-80), Bastar uprising (1910-11), and Gond rebellion (1940).
• British rulers’ patronage led to revitalization movements among the tribals, including movements like the Kherwar movement (1871-80), Sardari movement (1881-95), Birsa movement (1895-1901), and Tana Bhagat movement(1920-35).
• These movements led to the rise of politico-religious leaders who influenced tribal thinking for decades.
• A significant aspect of this period is the spread of Christianity among tribals, while Hinduism and Islam largely remained on the fringes.
• With the departure of British colonialists and the rise of independent India, tribal citizens were promised a fair deal and were given opportunities to be partners in progress.
• The upliftment of tribals was a key focus for the Constitution makers of India.
• The question remains whether this dream of upliftment has been realized, and the following chapters will explore the tribal situation in India from a multi-dimensional perspective to find an answer.

CH2. CONCEPT AND DEFINITION OF TRIBE

• The concept and definition of a tribe are ambiguous, and there is no consensus among anthropologists, sociologists, social workers, and administrators on what constitutes a tribe.
• The 1917 Census to the 1931 Census saw changing nomenclature for tribes, from “aboriginal” and “depressed classes” to the term scheduled tribes or Adivasi after independence.
• Despite the passage of time, the differences in understanding the concept of a tribe still exist, and a theoretical discussion is necessary for clarity.
• Various definitions of a tribe:
  • A tribe is a collection of families sharing a common name, speaking a common dialect, and occupying a common territory.
  • A tribe is a group of people in a primitive or barbarous stage of development, acknowledging the authority of a chief and regarding themselves as having a common ancestor.
  • A tribe is a group of bands occupying a contiguous territory with unity based on shared culture, frequent contacts, and community of interest.
  • A tribe is an independent political division of a population with a common culture.
  • A tribe is a group united by a common name, sharing a common language, territory, and viewing outsiders as enemies.
  • A tribe is a social group with territorial affiliation, endogamy, and ruled by tribal officers, maintaining tribal traditions, beliefs, and customs.
  • Ideally, tribal societies are small-scale, with restricted social, legal, and political relations, possessing a distinct morality, religion, and worldview, and have unwritten languages.
• Kinship ties, common territory, one language, and joint ownership are considered vital characteristics of a tribe, though not all anthropologists agree.
• Rivers did not see habitation in a common territory as a vital feature of tribal organization, while Perry insisted on it, as even nomadic tribes roam within a defined region.
• Radcliffe Brown gave examples of internal tribal conflict, suggesting internecine strife can occur within a tribe.
• There is no universal agreement on the characteristics of a tribe, and anthropologists’ views are often based on the type of data they are familiar with.
• Distinguishing tribes from peasants remains a major challenge in defining tribal society, and anthropologists have often contrasted them without clear distinctions.
• Earlier anthropologists assumed tribal societies were homogeneous, with a common government, dialect, and culture, but this view is debated.
• B.K. Roy Burman (1994) suggests defining a tribe based on a techno-economic-cultural evolution approach, where a group transcends the stage of a tribe when it advances beyond a certain point, though this approach is also debatable.
• The difficulty in conclusively defining a tribe shows the importance of focusing on regional connotations of the concept rather than seeking universal definitions.
• Bailey is one anthropologist who has tried to define tribes in terms of caste versus tribe, while most Indian anthropologists have not seriously worked on a definition of tribal society for the Indian context.
• T.B. Naik (1960) raised the issue of defining tribal life in the Indian context and the challenges of using rigid criteria.
• Naik questions traditional criteria like living in forests, having a primitive religion, being geographically isolated, or having a primitive economic system, as many tribal groups do not meet these conditions but are still classified as tribes.
• Naik presents his own criteria for a tribe:
  1. The tribe should have the least functional interdependence within the community.
  2. It should be economically backward, meaning:
     • Members do not fully understand monetary economics.
     • They use primitive means to exploit natural resources.
     • The economy should be underdeveloped.
     • They should have multiple economic pursuits.
  3. The tribe should have comparative geographic isolation from others.
  4. Culturally, members should share a common dialect, though it may vary regionally.
  5. The tribe should be politically organized, with an influential community Panchayat.
  6. Members should have a psychological conservatism, desiring to stick to old customs.
  7. The tribe should have customary laws, and members may face disadvantages in law courts because of them.
• Naik acknowledges that a tribe might undergo acculturation, but a high degree of acculturation should disqualify a group from being considered a tribe.
• Ehrenfels expands on some of Naik’s points, emphasizing:
  1. A tribe may remain isolated but is not part of the traditional Hindu caste hierarchy. They often share a common dialect and common beliefs.
  2. He replaces “economically backward” with “self-sufficient”, pointing out that some tribes are economically specialized.
  3. He agrees that a tribe should be geographically isolated, but recognizes that tribes like the Bhil or Santhal may not be isolated.
  4. Common dialects are important but not always required for tribal consciousness.
  5. A tribe does not always need a community Panchayat or political organization, and may have no central chief.
  6. He replaces the desire to change with a feeling of belonging to the group.
  7. Most tribes have customary laws distinct from non-tribal neighbors, often leading to disadvantages in legal matters.
• The Tata Institute of Social Sciences criticizes the anthropological criteria, stating they do not apply empirically to the scheduled tribes and are idealized for theoretical purposes.
• The Institute suggests that communities failing to meet anthropological criteria should not be considered tribes, even if they are listed as scheduled tribes.
• Arthur Wilke (1979) agrees that some difficulties arise from the intellectual legacy of anthropology, while Aiyappansarcastically refers to the challenge of defining a tribe as akin to defining a species—there is no clear-cut definition, and it’s subjective.
• Despite the academic debates on the definition of tribe, a significant measure of standardization has been achieved in identifying who is entitled to protection and privilege.
• This has been possible due to the rigorous academic efforts of anthropologists, who used empirical research to provide verifiable data, clearing misconceptions about Indian tribes.
• Majumdar and Madan (1967) highlight key characteristics of Indian tribes:
  1. A tribe is a territorial group, with a traditional territory that emigrants refer to as their home, e.g., the Santhalsworking in Assam tea gardens referring to Bihar or Bengal as home.
  2. Kinship operates as a strong principle in tribes, leading to endogamy and division into clans and sub-clans; these clans are exogamous.
  3. Members speak a common language, and intra-tribal conflict is not common. Tribes may have joint ownership of property, which is not exclusive (e.g., the Hos).
  4. Tribes are politically controlled by State governments, but there are Panchayats within tribes corresponding to cultural and racial diversity.
  5. Other features include distinctive customs for birth, marriage, and death, a moral code different from Hindus and Muslims, and unique religious beliefs and rituals.
• B.K. Royburman (1970) classifies Indian tribes based on their orientation towards the Hindu social order:
  1. Incorporated in the Hindu Social Order: Tribes like Bhil, Bhumij who have accepted the caste structure and resemble Hindu peasants.
  2. Positively Oriented towards Hindu Social Order: Tribes like Santhal, Oraon, Munda, and Gond are oriented towards the Hindu social structure.
  3. Negatively Oriented towards the Hindu Social Order: Tribes like the Mizo and Naga reject the caste framework.
  4. Indifferent towards the Hindu Social Order: Tribes in Arunachal Pradesh who are largely unaware of Hinduism and do not follow its moral constraints.
• This classification is also vulnerable on several counts, indicating complexity.
• Arthur Wilke (1979) notes that bureaucratic decision-making and the ongoing acculturation process make it difficult to apply a rigid concept of tribe. The ideal-type formulation often fails to account for the complex and evolving nature of tribal life in India.

CH3. TRIBES IN INDIA: THEIR CLASSIFICATION

• Due to the multiplicity of factors and complexity of the issues involved, classifying Indian tribes into distinct groups is challenging.
• The Commissioner for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes took up the task of investigating classification criteria for tribes.
• State governments were asked to suggest characteristics to distinguish aboriginal groups from the rest of the population.
• Assam Government suggested the following criteria for classification:
  • Descent from Mongoloid stock
  • Affiliation with Tibeto-Burman linguistic groups
  • Existence of a village clan type social organization.
• The Bombay government considered residence in forest areas as the primary criterion.
• The Madhya Pradesh government suggested:
  • Tribal origin
  • Speaking tribal languages
  • Residence in forest areas.
• Other governments like those of Madras, Orissa, Andhra, Mysore, and Travancore suggested various linguistic, geographical, economic, and social factors.
• Based on the above characteristics, Indian tribes can be classified according to:
  1. Territorial distribution
  2. Linguistic affiliation
  3. Physical and racial characteristics
  4. Occupation or economy
  5. Cultural contact
  6. Religious beliefs.

• B.S. Guha classified Indian tribes into three zones based on geography and tribal demography.

Zones:

1. The North and North-Eastern Zone
2. The Central or Middle Zone
3. The Southern Zone
4. Andaman and Nicobar Islands (not included by Guha in his zones but mentioned separately)

The North and North-Eastern Zone:

• Includes sub-Himalayan region and mountain valleys of the eastern frontiers of India.
• Tribes in Assam, Manipur, and Tripura are part of the eastern part of this zone.
• Northern part includes tribals of eastern Kashmir, eastern Punjab, Himachal Pradesh, and northern Uttar Pradesh.
• Important tribes: Aka, Dafla, Miri, Gurung, Apatanio, Mishmi, Khamti, Singpho, Naga tribes, Kuki, Lushai, Khasi, Garo, Lepcha, Tharu, Bhoksa, Jounsari, Bhotia, and Raji.
• Tribes in this zone mainly practice terrace cultivation or Jhum (shifting) cultivation.
• The area is characterized by poverty and economic backwardness.

The Central or Middle Zone:

• Includes plateaus and mountainous belts between the Indo-Gangetic plain and the Krishna river.
• Tribes in Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Bharat, southern Rajasthan, northern Maharashtra, Bihar, and Orissa.
• Peripheral areas include northern Rajasthan, southern Maharashtra, and Bastar.
• Important tribes: Savara, Gadaba, Borido, Juang, Kharia, Khond, Bhumij, Bhiya, Munda, Santhal, Oraon, Ho, Birhor, Katkari, Kol, Bhil, Gond, Koraku, Agaria, Pardhan, Baiga, Muria, Hill Muriya, and Bison-horn Maria.
• Most tribes in this zone practice shifting cultivation, but tribes like Oraon, Santhal, Munda, and Gond practice plough cultivation due to cultural contact with neighboring rural populations.

The Southern Zone:

• Covers southern India, stretching from the Krishna river to Cape Camorin.
• Includes Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Coorg, Travancore, Cochin, and Tamil Nadu.
• Important tribes: Chenchu, Yeruva, Toda, Irula, Paniyan, Kurumba, Kadar, Kanikkar, Malvadan, and Malakuravan.
• Most tribes depend on hunting and fishing for food gathering.
• The Kadar, Kanikkar, Malvadan, and Malakuravan are among the most economically backward communities.
• Toda, Badaga, and Kota live in the Nilgiri hills.

Andaman and Nicobar Islands:

• Not included in Guha’s zones but mentioned as a fourth zone.
• Tribes include Jarwa, Onge, North Sentinelese, Andamanese, and Nicobari.
• These tribes are ethnically close to south Indian tribes but are geographically separated from mainland tribes.

• People of India can be divided into four speech families: Indo-European (Aryan), Dravidian, Austric (Kolar Munda), and Tibeto-Chinese (Sino-Tibetan).
• D. N. Majumdar (1955) states that the Aryan speech comes into play due to cultural contact with tribal people who have pre-Aryan or non-Aryan origins.
• Most scholars agree that tribal people of India can be classified into three main speech families: (1) Dravidian, (2) Austric, and (3) Tibeto-Chinese.
• Dravidian languages are spoken mainly in southern and middle India.
• Some of the most developed Dravidian languages are Tamil, Telugu, Kannada, and Malayalam.
• The Gonds are one of the prominent tribal groups speaking a Dravidian-based language, mostly found in areas from Madhya Pradesh to Andhra Pradesh.
• Gond language has no literature but is important due to the large number of speakers.
• Koi language is spoken by tribes like Kandh of Orissa, Oraon of Chotanagpur, and Malto of Rajmahal hills.
• Other Dravidian languages spoken by tribal groups include Toda, Paliya, Chenchu, Irula, and Kadar.
• The Austric family, also known as the Munda speech family, was first identified by Max Muller.
• The Munda speech family is primarily spoken by tribes in the Chotanagpur region but also in parts of Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, West Bengal, Madras, and the Terai region of the Himalayas.
• Some important Austric languages include Santhali (spoken in Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa), Mundari, Ho, Kharia, Bhumij, and other languages from Bihar.
• Tibeto-Chinese languages are spoken mainly by tribes of Mongol racial stock.
• This family is divided into two branches: (i) Tibeto-Burman and (ii) Siamese-Chinese.
• Tribes from Assam, Meghalaya, and other parts of northeastern India speak languages from this family.

• D. N. Majumdar (1955) describes the complexity of classifying tribal people of India based on racial affinities, calling it one of the most challenging tasks for Indian anthropologists.
• There is no direct evidence of the ethnic stocks that inhabited India in prehistoric times, and even the racial composition of historic India remains largely unknown.
• All historical reconstructions about India’s racial history are based on conjecture due to the lack of concrete evidence.
• The first scientific racial classification of India was attempted by Sir Herbert Risley, who published his findings in 1915 in his book The Peoples of India.
• He classified the Indian population into seven racial types:
  1. Turko-Iranian
  2. Indo-Aryan
  3. Scytho-Dravidian
  4. Aryo-Dravidian
  5. Mongolo-Dravidian
  6. Mongoloid
  7. Dravidian
• These seven types were later reduced to three basic types: Dravidian, Mongolian, and Indo-Aryan.
• The latest racial classification was attempted by Hutton, Guha, and Majumdar.
• Guha’s classification includes six main races with nine sub-types:
  1. Negrito
  2. Proto-Australoid
  3. Mongoloid:
     • Palaeo-Mongoloids
       • (a) Long-headed
       • (b) Broad-headed
     • Tibeto-Mongoloids
  4. Mediterranean:
     • (i) Palaeo-Mediterranean
     • (ii) Mediterranean
     • (iii) Oriental type
  5. Western Brachycephals:
     • (i) Alpinoid
     • (ii) Dinaric
     • (iii) Armenoid
  6. Nordic
• A separate classificatory scheme was suggested for the aboriginals of India.
• The ancestry of the present tribal population of India is traced mainly to the first three types: Negrito, Proto-Australoid, and Mongoloid.
• Negrito racial type includes tribes such as Kadar, Irula, Paliyar (in the hills of Cochin and Travancore), Angami Naga of Assam, and tribals of Rajmahal Hills (Bihar).
• Negrito features include short stature, black skin, black woolly hair, thin lips, and broad nose.
• Proto-Australoid racial type is characterized by short to medium stature, long and high head, broad and small face, and small flattened nose.
• Most middle or central Indian tribals fall under this type, including some South Indian tribes like Chenchu and Bhill.
• Mongoloid racial stock includes most northeastern tribes and is marked by yellowish skin, straight dark hair, flat nose, prominent cheekbones, and almond-shaped eyes with epicanthic fold.
• Some important Mongoloid tribes are Naga, Chakma, and Lepcha.
• Despite these classifications, tribes of India cannot be strictly categorized under any single racial type due to India’s history as a “melting pot of races” (Majumdar, ibid).
• The generalized racial types do not account for all tribes, and some, like the Todas of Nilgiri Hills, still lack a clear racial label.
• Serological and linguistic research is ongoing, but no new aspects of the racial composition of tribal India have been revealed yet.

• Classical classification by Adam Smith, and recent classifications by Thurnwald and Herskovits have been used globally to classify tribes based on their economic life.
• The classification by Thurnwald is considered the most acceptable in the Indian context.
• Thurnwald’s classification includes:
  1. Hunters and trappers with women as collectors: Kadar, Chenchu, Kharia, and Korwa are examples of such tribes in India.
  2. Hunters, trappers, and agriculturists: Kamar, Baiga, and Birhor are examples of this type.
  3. Graded society of hunters, trappers, agriculturists, and artisans: Many Indian tribes, like the Cherc and Agariya, fall under this category.
  4. Herdsmen: Toda and some sections of the Bhil tribe are examples.
  5. Hunters and herdsmen: This category is not represented in Indian tribes, as Todas do not hunt or catch fish/birds.
  6. Ethnically stratified cattle breeders and traders: Bhotiyas of the sub-Himalayan region breed yaks and are itinerant traders.
  7. Socially graded herdsmen with hunting, agricultural, and artisan populations.
• Majumdar believes this classification is useful but does not address the economic difficulties experienced by tribal communities.
• A more clear-cut classification, considering technological achievements in economic life, includes:
  1. Tribes hunting in forests.
  2. Tribes engaged in hilly cultivation (shifting or slash-and-burn).
  3. Tribes engaged in cultivation on plain land.
  4. Simple artisan tribes.
  5. Pastoral tribes.
  6. Tribes living as folk artists.
  7. Agricultural and non-agricultural labor-oriented tribes.
  8. Tribes engaged in service and trade.
• Tribes hunting in forests gather edible roots, fruits, hunt, and fish. Some examples include Chenchu, Chandi(Andhra Pradesh), Kadar, Malapatram, Kurumba (Kerala), Paliyan (Tamil Nadu), and Onge, Jarwa, Sentinelese, Nicobarese (Andaman and Nicobar Islands).
• Tribes practicing shifting cultivation are common in northeastern and central India. This involves slashing and burning bushes/trees, scattering seeds on ashes, and letting nature take its course. Tribes from Assam, Meghalaya, Arunachal Pradesh, Mizoram, Manipur, Tripura, and some from Orissa and Gond Madhya Pradesh practice this.
• Settled agriculture is increasingly adopted by many tribes due to contact with civilized groups, using ploughs, bullocks, and other common agricultural tools. However, most of their land is unirrigated, leading to dependence on rainand low yields due to lack of fertilizers and high-yielding varieties. Tribes like Oraon, Munda, Ho, and Santhals are notable cultivators.
• Cottage industries: Some tribes are engaged in activities like basket-making, mat weaving, and blacksmithing, supplying goods to tribal and non-tribal societies. Examples include:
  • Gujjar (Kashmir) and Kinnauri (Himachal Pradesh) work with wood.
  • Asur (Bihar) and Agariya (Madhya Pradesh) are skilled in iron smelting.
  • Kolam (Maharashtra) are traditional mat weavers, and Irula (Tamil Nadu) make baskets and mats from bamboo.
• Pastoral tribes: Few in number, but examples include Toda (Nilgiri hills), Gaddi, and Bakrawal (Himachal Pradesh), Nageshia (Madhya Pradesh), Maldhan (Gujarat). Not all pastoral tribes trade in milk; some rear cattle like sheep and goats for sale.
• Folk artist tribes: Some tribes earn a living through dances, acrobatics, and snake charming. Examples include Nutand Sapera (Uttar Pradesh), Mundupptu (Orissa), Kota (Tamil Nadu), and some groups of Gonds (Madhya Pradesh).
• Agricultural labor tribes: Many tribes work as agricultural laborers due to landlessness, making up about one-fifth of the total tribal population. They often work in local factories, mines in Bihar, Orissa, and Bengal, and tea plantations in Assam and neighboring areas.
• A small number of tribes are employed in government and semi-government jobs due to constitutional provisions. Examples include tribes from Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, and Christian tribes of Chotanagpur.

• Indian tribes can be classified based on their cultural distance from rural-urban groups.
• Majumdar (1976) believes this approach is useful for evolving rehabilitation plans, focusing on problems caused by haphazard contact or isolation of tribes from rural-urban groups.
• Varrier Elwin’s classification in the 1950s includes four types of aboriginals:
  1. Most primitive tribes, living a communal life and practicing axe cultivation.
  2. Tribes that are individualistic, less attached to traditional practices, and more influenced by outside life.
  3. The most numerous tribes, losing their tribal culture, religion, and social organization under external influence.
  4. Tribes like Bhil and Naga who retain much of their original life and have successfully navigated cultural contact.
• Majumdar calls Elwin’s classification a “crusader’s manifesto” and agrees it presents a contemporary picture of tribal cultural crisis but finds it unacceptable for rehabilitation plans.
• Majumdar’s classification of tribal cultures into three groups:
  1. Tribes most distant from rural-urban groups, remaining more or less out of contact.
  2. Tribes influenced by rural-urban cultures, facing discomforts and problems due to this influence.
  3. Tribes who have adapted to rural or urban cultures and are no longer suffering from past acculturation.
• Majumdar disagrees with Elwin’s view that all contact with the civilized world brings misery to tribes. He advocates for healthy and creative contacts between tribes and rural-urban groups under planned conditions.
• The Indian Conference of Social Work (1952) appointed a Tribal Welfare Committee, which suggested a classification of tribes into:
  1. Tribal communities.
  2. Semi-tribal communities.
  3. Acculturated tribal communities.
  4. Totally assimilated tribes.

• Major religions of India have influenced various tribal religions and pantheons.
• Only isolated tribal communities in dense forests maintain their native religious beliefs in pure form.
• Based on Census data, tribes can be classified as followers of:
  1. Hinduism
  2. Christianity
  3. Buddhism
  4. Islam
  5. Jainism
  6. Other religions
• Hinduism has the strongest influence on tribes, with almost 90% of tribals following it in some form.
• Christianity is also significant, with about 6% of tribals under its influence.
• Tribes following Buddhism, Islam, or Jainism are negligible in number.
• Even tribes that have embraced major religions often retain their local tribal beliefs and rituals.
• Geographical distribution of tribal religions:
  • Most tribes of South India, Western India, and Central India are Hindu.
  • Christianity dominates among tribes of North-Eastern India, with over 90% of Nagaland and Mizoramfollowing it.
  • In Central India, major Christian tribes include Oraon, Munda, and Ho of Chotanagpur.
  • Islam-following tribes are scattered in Lakshadweep, Himachal Pradesh, West Bengal, Maharashtra, and Jammu & Kashmir.
  • 98% of tribal populations in Lakshadweep, Minicoy, and Amindivi Islands follow Islam.
  • Buddhism among Indian tribes is mainly represented by tribal groups of Arunachal Pradesh, but its impact is also visible among some Himalayan and Maharashtrian tribes.