Urban Society – Solved PYQs of Sociology – UGC NET

Urbanism ,Urbanity & Urbanization

1. ‘Rurbanism’ is a term that is related to the study of– (JUNE 2012)

(A) Villages
(B) Town and cities
(C) Rural areas
(D) Life-styles of rural–urban people

Correct Answer: (D) Life-styles of rural–urban people

The term Rurbanism is formed by combining the words rural and urban. It refers to the blending and interaction of rural and urban ways of life, creating social and cultural patterns that contain characteristics of both. The concept emerged from the observation that the traditional distinction between villages and cities is becoming less clear due to processes such as urbanization, industrialization, modernization, improved transportation, communication networks, and the spread of markets and technology.

Rurbanism focuses on the life-styles of rural–urban people, particularly those who live in areas where rural and urban influences coexist. Such populations may reside in villages but adopt urban consumption patterns, educational aspirations, occupational structures, and cultural practices. At the same time, they may continue to maintain rural social relations, kinship networks, agricultural activities, and community traditions. The concept helps sociologists understand the transformation of social life in regions that cannot be classified as completely rural or completely urban.

In rural sociology and urban sociology, Rurbanism is important because it highlights the emergence of transitional social spaces. The growth of peri-urban regions, suburban settlements, census towns, and villages located near expanding cities often produces rurban characteristics. People in these areas may commute to urban workplaces, use urban services, and participate in urban markets while still being connected to rural land, family structures, and local customs.

The study of rurban life-styles examines changes in occupation, consumption, housing patterns, education, family relations, social mobility, and cultural values resulting from the interaction between rural and urban environments. It reflects the increasing integration of rural and urban societies and the development of mixed socio-cultural patterns in contemporary communities.

2. Who has written the book “Urbanization and Family Change”? (DEC 2012)

(A) Iravati Karve
(B) M. S. Gore
(C) Leela Dube
(D) I.P. Desai

Correct Answer: (B) M. S. Gore

M. S. Gore is the author of the book “Urbanization and Family Change”, a significant contribution to the study of urban sociology and the sociology of the family in India. In this work, Gore examines the impact of urbanization on family structure, family relationships, and social organization. His research challenged the common assumption that urbanization automatically leads to the breakdown of the traditional family system and the emergence of isolated nuclear families.

Through empirical studies, M. S. Gore demonstrated that while urbanization introduces important changes in family life, many traditional family values and kinship ties continue to survive in urban settings. He observed that urban families often adapt to new economic and social conditions without completely abandoning their cultural traditions. Family members may live separately due to employment and housing constraints, yet maintain close emotional, economic, and ritual connections with their extended relatives.

The book is particularly important because it highlights the process of family adaptation rather than simple family disintegration. Gore argued that urbanization creates new patterns of authority, decision-making, residence, and occupational mobility, but these changes occur within the broader framework of Indian social and cultural traditions. His analysis contributed to a deeper understanding of the relationship between social change, urban growth, and family transformation in developing societies.

M. S. Gore’s work occupies an important place in Indian sociology alongside studies conducted by scholars such as Iravati Karve, I. P. Desai, and Leela Dube, who also made major contributions to the understanding of kinship, family, marriage, and social structure in India. The book remains a valuable reference for understanding how urbanization reshapes family life while preserving many elements of traditional social organization.

3. Assertion–Reason: Urbanization & Displacement of Peasantry (JUNE 2014)

Assertion (A): Urbanization and industrialization in the era of globalization led to displacement of peasantry in India.

Reason (R): Peasants’ eviction is due to land acquisition pursued by the state.

(A) (A) is true, (R) is false.
(B) Both (A) and (R) are true.
(C) Both (A) and (R) are false.
(D) (A) is false, (R) is true.

Correct Answer: (B) Both (A) and (R) are true.

The Assertion (A) is true because the processes of urbanization, industrialization, and globalization have significantly transformed the agrarian structure in India. Since the economic reforms of the 1990s, rapid expansion of industries, infrastructure projects, highways, mining operations, Special Economic Zones (SEZs), townships, and urban centers has increased the demand for land. A large proportion of this land has been acquired from agricultural regions, leading to the displacement of many peasants and rural communities. The loss of agricultural land often results in changes in occupation, migration to urban areas, and the weakening of traditional agrarian livelihoods.

The Reason (R) is also true because one of the major causes of peasant displacement has been land acquisition by the state for public projects and industrial development. Governments have frequently acquired land for roads, dams, industrial corridors, power plants, urban expansion, and other development initiatives. In many instances, land acquired by the state has subsequently been transferred to private corporations or development authorities for industrial and commercial purposes. Such acquisitions have generated debates concerning compensation, rehabilitation, livelihood security, and the rights of affected communities.

The relationship between the assertion and reason is evident in the sociological understanding of development-induced displacement. Scholars studying agrarian change, rural sociology, and political economy have noted that state-supported development projects often facilitate the expansion of urban and industrial sectors, which in turn contributes to the displacement of peasants. The experiences of regions affected by large dams, mining projects, industrial zones, and urban expansion demonstrate how state-led land acquisition has been an important mechanism through which urbanization and industrialization have reshaped rural society.

The issue has been widely discussed in studies of globalization, development, agrarian transformation, and social movements, particularly in relation to the struggles of farmers and rural communities seeking protection of land rights, fair compensation, and sustainable livelihood opportunities in rapidly changing economic environments.

4. Match List-I with List-II (DEC 2014)

List-I (Concepts)
(a) Urbanism as a way of life
(b) Folk–urban continuum
(c) Little and Great Traditions
(d) Culture of poverty

List-II (Authors)

1. Oscar Lewis

2.  L. Wirth

3. R. Redfield

4. Milton Singer

Codes:
(A) 2, 3, 4, 1
(B) 4, 1, 2, 3
(C) 4, 3, 2, 1
(D) 2, 1, 3, 4

Correct Answer: (A) 2, 3, 4, 1

The correct matching is:

(a) Urbanism as a way of life — L. Wirth
(b) Folk–urban continuum — R. Redfield
(c) Little and Great Traditions — Milton Singer
(d) Culture of poverty — Oscar Lewis

Thus, the correct sequence is 2, 3, 4, 1.

The concept of “Urbanism as a Way of Life” was developed by Louis Wirth, a prominent member of the Chicago School of Sociology. In his influential essay published in 1938, Wirth argued that large population size, density, and social heterogeneity shape a distinctive urban lifestyle characterized by impersonal relationships, social mobility, specialization, and secondary group interactions. His work became one of the foundational texts in urban sociology.

The concept of the “Folk–Urban Continuum” was introduced by Robert Redfield. Through his studies of Mexican communities, Redfield proposed that societies can be placed along a continuum ranging from isolated folk societies to complex urban societies. Instead of treating rural and urban communities as completely separate categories, he viewed them as interconnected stages of social and cultural development. This concept became highly influential in studies of social change, modernization, and rural–urban relations.

The idea of “Little Tradition” and “Great Tradition” is associated with Milton Singer, who further developed and applied the framework in the Indian context. The Great Tradition refers to the formal, literate, philosophical, and pan-civilizational aspects of culture preserved by intellectual and religious elites, while the Little Tradition refers to local, village-based, and folk cultural practices. This distinction became important in understanding cultural continuity and change in complex civilizations such as India.

The concept of the “Culture of Poverty” was formulated by Oscar Lewis through his studies of poor communities in Latin America and elsewhere. Lewis argued that persistent poverty often generates a distinctive set of values, attitudes, and behavioral patterns that are transmitted across generations. The concept attracted considerable attention in sociology and anthropology, although it also generated debates regarding the structural causes of poverty and the extent to which cultural factors contribute to its persistence.

These concepts and scholars are among the most frequently asked topics in urban sociology, rural sociology, and social anthropology, making their association important for UGC NET and other sociology examinations.

5. Assertion–Reason: Coastal States Urbanization (JAN 2017)

Assertion (A): Majority of coastal states in India are highly urbanized.

Reason (R): They had early interaction with other countries.

(A) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) explains (A).
(B) Both (A) and (R) are true, but (R) is not the explanation.
(C) (A) is true, but (R) is false.
(D) (A) is false, but (R) is true.

Correct Answer: (A) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) explains (A).

The Assertion (A) is true because a large number of India’s coastal states, such as Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Gujarat, Goa, and Kerala, have historically recorded higher levels of urbanization compared to many inland states. These regions contain major port cities, industrial centers, commercial hubs, and transportation networks that have attracted population growth, investment, and economic activities. Cities such as Mumbai, Chennai, Kochi, Surat, and Visakhapatnam emerged as important centers of trade and industry, contributing significantly to urban expansion.

The Reason (R) is also true. Coastal regions of India established early interaction with other countries through maritime trade and cultural exchange. From ancient times, Indian coastal settlements maintained commercial relations with regions in West Asia, Africa, Southeast Asia, and later with European trading powers such as the Portuguese, Dutch, French, and British. These interactions encouraged the growth of ports, markets, administrative centers, and urban settlements along the coastline.

The reason correctly explains the assertion because early overseas contacts stimulated economic development, trade, shipping, and industrial investment in coastal areas. During the colonial period, major port cities became centers of administration, commerce, manufacturing, and infrastructure development. The concentration of economic opportunities in these cities attracted migrants from rural areas and other regions, accelerating the process of urbanization. The development of railways, docks, warehouses, financial institutions, and industries around port cities further strengthened their urban character.

From the perspective of urban sociology and development studies, the relationship between trade, connectivity, and urban growth is well established. Coastal states benefited from their strategic location in international trade networks, which promoted economic diversification and urban expansion. The historical advantages created by maritime commerce continue to influence patterns of urbanization in contemporary India, making many coastal states among the most urbanized regions of the country.

6. When migration to urban areas exceeds the rate of industrialization in the city, it is a state of– (NOV 2017)

(A) Urbanism
(B) Over-Urbanisation
(C) Cultural Lag
(D) Industrialism

Correct Answer: (B) Over-Urbanisation

Over-Urbanisation refers to a situation in which the growth of the urban population occurs at a faster rate than the growth of industrialization, employment opportunities, and urban infrastructure. This condition usually emerges when large numbers of people migrate from rural areas to cities in search of better livelihoods, education, healthcare, and other opportunities, but the urban economy is unable to absorb them into productive employment.

The concept is particularly relevant in many developing countries where urban population growth is driven more by rural-to-urban migration than by industrial expansion. In such circumstances, cities experience rapid increases in population without corresponding growth in industries, housing, transportation, sanitation, and public services. As a result, problems such as unemployment, underemployment, overcrowding, housing shortages, slum formation, traffic congestion, and pressure on civic amenities become more severe.

The term differs from Urbanism, which refers to a distinctive way of life associated with urban living and was extensively discussed by Louis Wirth. It is also different from Industrialism, which refers to a social and economic system based on industrial production and factory-based economic activity. Likewise, Cultural Lag, a concept developed by William F. Ogburn, describes the gap that occurs when material culture changes more rapidly than non-material culture, such as values, norms, and institutions.

In the Indian context, several sociologists and urban scholars have noted that urban growth has often outpaced industrial development in many cities. Migration driven by agrarian distress, regional inequalities, and aspirations for better opportunities contributes to the expansion of urban populations even when adequate employment opportunities are not available. This creates a mismatch between population growth and economic capacity, which is the central feature of over-urbanisation. The concept is widely used in urban sociology, development studies, and population studies to analyze the challenges of rapid urban growth in developing societies.

7. Assertion–Reason: Developed & Urbanized States (JULY 2018)

Assertion (A): Majority of the developed states in India are contiguous.

Reason (R): They are also more urbanized than other states.

(A) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) explains (A).
(B) Both (A) and (R) are true, but (R) is not the explanation.
(C) (A) is true, but (R) is false.
(D) (A) is false, but (R) is true.

Correct Answer: (B) Both (A) and (R) are true, but (R) is not the explanation.

The Assertion (A) is true because many of the relatively developed states in India are geographically contiguous and form regional clusters. States such as Gujarat, Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, and Kerala are located adjacent to one another along the western and southern parts of the country. These states have historically experienced higher levels of industrialization, infrastructure development, literacy, trade, and economic growth compared to several other regions. Their geographical proximity has facilitated economic linkages, transportation networks, market integration, and regional development.

The Reason (R) is also true. Most developed states in India tend to have higher levels of urbanization, with a larger proportion of their population living in towns and cities. Urban centers act as hubs of industry, commerce, services, education, finance, and technological innovation. States such as Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Gujarat, and Karnataka possess major metropolitan cities that contribute significantly to economic development and employment generation. Higher urbanization is often associated with better infrastructure, greater productivity, and increased access to social services.

However, the reason does not correctly explain the assertion. The fact that developed states are more urbanized does not explain why many of them are contiguous. Geographic contiguity refers to their location next to one another, whereas urbanization refers to the concentration of population and economic activities in urban areas. The clustering of developed states is influenced by a combination of historical trade routes, access to coastlines, industrial investment, colonial legacies, natural resources, policy initiatives, and regional economic interactions. Urbanization is one characteristic of these developed states, but it is not the direct cause of their geographical contiguity.

In sociological and developmental studies, regional disparities in India are often examined through indicators such as urbanization, industrialization, human development, infrastructure, literacy, and income levels. The western and southern regions of India have generally performed better on many of these indicators, creating a noticeable spatial concentration of development across adjoining states. This makes both the assertion and reason correct statements, while the reason does not provide the correct explanation for the assertion.

8. Which one is not an indicator of the Human Development Index? (JULY 2018)

(A) Life Expectancy
(B) Education
(C) National per capita income
(D) Level of Urbanization

Correct Answer: (D) Level of Urbanization

The Human Development Index (HDI) is a composite measure developed by the United Nations Development Programme to assess the overall level of human development in a country. Introduced through the efforts of economists Mahbub ul Haq and Amartya Sen, the HDI shifted the focus of development studies from purely economic growth to the broader enhancement of human well-being and capabilities.

The HDI is based on three fundamental dimensions of human development. The first is health, measured through life expectancy at birth, which reflects the ability of people to live long and healthy lives. The second is education, measured through indicators such as expected years of schooling and mean years of schooling. The third is standard of living, measured through Gross National Income (GNI) per capita, which represents access to economic resources and opportunities.

Among the given options, Level of Urbanization is not an indicator used in the calculation of the Human Development Index. Although urbanization is an important social and economic process and is often associated with improvements in infrastructure, employment opportunities, healthcare, and education, it is not one of the three dimensions incorporated into the HDI methodology. A country may have a high level of urbanization but still face challenges in education, health, or income distribution, which can affect its human development ranking.

The HDI was designed to provide a more comprehensive understanding of development than measures such as per capita income alone. It emphasizes the expansion of human choices and capabilities rather than focusing exclusively on economic output. Over time, additional measures such as the Inequality-adjusted Human Development Index (IHDI), Gender Development Index (GDI), and Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI) have been introduced to capture different aspects of human well-being, while the core HDI continues to be based on life expectancy, education, and income.

9. Arrange the following states according to their level of urbanization (descending order): (DEC 2019)

(a) Tamil Nadu
(b) Maharashtra
(c) Kerala
(d) Punjab

(A) (a), (b), (d), (c)
(B) (a), (c), (b), (d)
(C) (c), (a), (b), (d)
(D) (a), (d), (b), (c)

Correct Answer: (B) (a), (c), (b), (d)

The correct descending order of urbanization among the given states is Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Maharashtra, and Punjab. According to the Census of India 2011, Tamil Nadu had one of the highest levels of urbanization in the country, with more than 48 percent of its population residing in urban areas. Kerala followed closely, recording a remarkably high urban population due to the reclassification of many settlements as urban and the emergence of a dispersed pattern of urban development. Maharashtra ranked next, with a highly urbanized economy centered around major cities such as Mumbai, Pune, Nagpur, and Nashik. Punjab, although economically developed in many respects, had a lower proportion of urban population compared to the other three states.

Tamil Nadu occupies a distinctive position in India’s urban landscape because of its extensive network of cities and towns spread across the state. Unlike states where urban growth is concentrated in one or two metropolitan centers, Tamil Nadu has multiple urban centers that contribute to a high level of urbanization. Industrial development, manufacturing activities, educational institutions, and service-sector growth have strengthened its urban character.

Kerala presents a unique pattern of urbanization that has attracted considerable attention from sociologists, geographers, and development scholars. The state exhibits what is often described as dispersed urbanization, where urban characteristics extend across large areas rather than being confined to a few major cities. High literacy, improved transportation, migration, remittances from overseas workers, and better social development indicators have contributed to this pattern.

Maharashtra remains one of India’s most economically advanced and industrialized states. The presence of Mumbai as the country’s financial capital, along with several other industrial and commercial centers, has accelerated urban growth. Despite having some of the largest metropolitan regions in India, its overall percentage of urban population remains slightly lower than that of Tamil Nadu and Kerala.

Punjab has experienced significant economic development, particularly through agricultural modernization associated with the Green Revolution. However, a substantial share of its population continues to reside in rural areas. Its urbanization level is comparatively lower than the other three states, placing it last in the descending order among the given options.

The sequence Tamil Nadu → Kerala → Maharashtra → Punjab reflects the relative levels of urbanization recognized in demographic and sociological studies of India and is frequently referenced in discussions of urban development, regional disparities, and patterns of social change in contemporary Indian society.

10. Which two states are most and least urbanized in India? (DEC 2019)

(a) Tamil Nadu
(b) Kerala
(c) Himachal Pradesh
(d) Assam

(A) (a) and (d)
(B) (a) and (c)
(C) (b) and (c)
(D) (c) and (d)

Correct Answer: (B) (a) and (c)

The correct answer is Tamil Nadu and Himachal Pradesh. Among the states listed, Tamil Nadu is the most urbanized, while Himachal Pradesh is the least urbanized. According to the Census of India 2011, Tamil Nadu had one of the highest proportions of urban population among the major states of India, whereas Himachal Pradesh recorded a very low percentage of urban residents, with the majority of its population living in rural areas.

Tamil Nadu is often cited as one of India’s most urbanized states because of its extensive network of cities, towns, industrial centers, and service-sector hubs. Unlike many states where urban development is concentrated in a single metropolitan area, Tamil Nadu has multiple urban centers such as Chennai, Coimbatore, Madurai, Tiruchirappalli, Salem, and Tiruppur. The state’s strong industrial base, manufacturing sector, transportation infrastructure, educational institutions, and commercial activities have encouraged sustained urban growth. Its urbanization pattern is also characterized by a relatively balanced distribution of urban settlements across different regions.

Himachal Pradesh, on the other hand, has one of the lowest levels of urbanization among Indian states. The state’s mountainous terrain, scattered settlements, limited industrialization, and dependence on agriculture, horticulture, and tourism have contributed to a predominantly rural population structure. Geographic constraints have restricted the growth of large urban centers, and most settlements continue to retain rural characteristics. Cities such as Shimla, Dharamshala, and Solan are important urban centers, but their population size and urban influence are comparatively limited when viewed at the state level.

Although Kerala is highly urbanized and has experienced significant urban expansion, its level of urbanization remains slightly lower than that of Tamil Nadu in many standard comparisons used in sociology and demography. Assam has a relatively low level of urbanization, but it is generally more urbanized than Himachal Pradesh. For this reason, the combination of the most urbanized and least urbanized states among the given options is Tamil Nadu and Himachal Pradesh.

The question highlights the importance of understanding regional variations in urbanization, which are influenced by factors such as industrial development, geography, infrastructure, economic opportunities, population distribution, and historical patterns of growth. These variations play a significant role in shaping patterns of social change, migration, economic development, and urban planning across India.