• College admissions criteria evolved over time, with major transformations in the early twentieth century.
• In 1905, the SAT was introduced, leading to increased diversity in college admissions.
• Harvard, reacting to a rise in Jewish admissions, shifted to a holistic approach, considering the “whole person.”
• Elite colleges sought “best graduates” rather than just academically successful students.
• Athletes gained advantages in admissions despite lower GPAs and SAT scores, possibly due to potential high-paying careers.
• Admissions officials once conducted interviews, favoring well-rounded, attractive candidates.
• Physical appearance, including height and ear size, used to impact admissions decisions, but this is generally no longer the case.
• Questions about affirmative action reflect a limited perspective, according to C. Wright Mills and the sociological imagination.
• Sociological imagination involves understanding personal experiences within a larger social structure.
• Some individuals incorrectly connect college rejections to affirmative action without considering the evidence.
• Data disproves the idea that affirmative action is the primary reason for college rejections.
• The importance of a sociological imagination is emphasized, but evidence assessment is crucial for accurate sociological analysis.

BASIC CONCEPTS

Social Construction

• Sociologists focus on questions that guide the sociological imagination and research:
  • How are natural things socially constructed?
  • How is social order possible?
  • Does the individual matter?
  • How are current times different from the past?
• Sociology challenges the notion that what we see as natural is inevitable and unchangeable.
• The college admissions system is a social construction influenced by historical and demographic trends.
• Sex and gender are socially constructed; babies are assigned to categories of “boy” or “girl” based on physical characteristics.
• Unlike race or economic class, the need to know a baby’s sex is prevalent in social interactions.
• Parents often dress babies in traditional blue or pink to signal their gender, shaping social interactions.
• Social cues influence how people interact with babies based on perceived gender, impacting their self-perception.
• Sociologists aim to disentangle biological factors from socially constructed ones.
• Sociology doesn’t dismiss biology but seeks to understand how social and biological factors interrelate.
• Many things perceived as biological are shown to be socially constructed through sociological studies.

Social Order

• Sociologist observes orderly behavior in a lecture hall and questions the existence of social order.
• Various explanations for social order exist:
  • Rational choice: Individuals act in their self-interest, motivated by incentives like letters of recommendation.
  • Norms: Social life dictates certain behaviors, learned through socialization, leading to internalized expectations.
  • Beliefs and values: Social order is maintained due to students valuing the classroom, university, or higher education.
• Sociologists consider a combination of factors rather than a narrow view of human nature.
• Norms explain how society is internalized in individuals, shaping interactions.
• Beliefs and values add a moral dimension, making social order more than just following norms.
• Social order is not taken for granted; disruptions prompt sociological questions about its occurrence.
• Sociologists reverse common questions, asking why disruptions in social order don’t happen more frequently after major events like 9/11 or school shootings.

Agency and Structure

• Social sciences debate free will vs. determinism.
• Sociological imagination often seen as deterministic, emphasizing social roles, gender, race, and class influence on individuals.
• College admissions example challenges determinism; Ivy League attendance doesn’t guarantee success.
• Alan Krueger and Stacy Dale’s study shows Ivy League and state-level college attendees have similar average salaries.
• Sociologists consider probabilities, acknowledging the influence of characteristics but leaving room for individual impact.
• Sociological imagination allows for recognition of constraints on individuals.
• Example of a working-class girl challenging determinism by aspiring to be a lawyer.
• Parents with deterministic views may discourage college aspirations due to perceived odds.
• Individuals can defy constraints and pursue goals despite societal expectations.
• Many have overcome similar constraints to attend college.

Social Change

• Sociologists explore how people live in light of social transformations.
• Alexis de Tocqueville’s study, “Democracy in America,” viewed the U.S. as a nation of joiners.
• Sociologists revisit whether Americans are less involved in public-spirited activities today than in the past.
• Max Weber analyzed the influence of large-scale organizations and the transformation of social life.
• Karl Marx examined industrialization’s impact on society, transforming relationships from feudalism to capitalism.
• Émile Durkheim explored how industrialization and urbanization led to specialized roles, benefiting society.
• These topics were crucial in understanding historical changes and societal transformations at specific times.

THE DEVELOPMENT OF SOCIOLOGICAL THINKING

• Students studying sociology encounter diverse approaches and disagreements among sociologists.
• Sociologists often differ on how to study human behavior and interpret research results.
• The complexity arises from sociology being about our lives and behavior, making it a challenging field.
• Four guiding questions in sociology contribute to the diversity of approaches:
  • How are natural things socially constructed?
  • How is social order possible?
  • Does the individual matter?
  • How are current times different from the past?
• The nature of sociology, involving the study of ourselves, adds complexity and diversity to the field.

Theories and Theoretical Approaches

AUGUSTE COMTE

• Auguste Comte coined the term sociology and aimed to establish it as a scientific discipline.
• Comte believed in applying the scientific method to study human behavior and society.
• Initially called the subject “social physics,” Comte envisioned sociology modeling itself after physics.
• He believed sociology could contribute to humanity’s welfare by predicting and controlling human behavior.
• Comte’s ideas were based on the premise that society and social order are not natural but constructed by individuals.
• Later in his career, Comte proposed ambitious plans for reconstructing French society and human societies based on scientific knowledge.
• The question of whether sociologists should serve humanity with their work, as Comte envisioned, remains a topic of discussion in sociology.

HERBERT SPENCER

• Herbert Spencer, a British philosopher, biologist, anthropologist, and political theorist, influenced by and critical of Comte.
• Spencer believed development is a natural outcome of individual achievement.
• In “The Study of Sociology” (1873), he argued for societal change by maximizing individual potential.
• Privileged members earned their high quality of life through individual effort, according to Spencer.
• He opposed state intervention, suggesting it would interfere with the natural order where the best succeed and others fall behind due to their effort or ability.
• Spencer’s ideas influenced functionalist perspectives but are criticized and out of favor among contemporary sociologists.
• Lester Frank Ward, the first president of the American Sociological Association, attacked Spencer’s ideas.
• Spencer’s “survival of the fittest” concept influenced economics and political science, particularly among proponents of a “laissez-faire” approach.

ÉMILE DURKHEIM

• Émile Durkheim, influenced by Comte, found many of Comte’s ideas too speculative and vague.
• Durkheim aimed to establish sociology on a scientific basis by developing methodological principles.
• His first principle: “Study social facts as things!” Social facts, like the state of the economy or the influence of religion, shape individual actions.
• Durkheim viewed society as a set of independent parts, akin to a biologist studying the human body.
• Like Spencer, he compared society to a biological organism, emphasizing the interdependence of specialized institutions.
• Durkheim coined the term “organic solidarity” for the cohesion of specialized institutions in society.
• He argued that social cohesion depends on cooperation and a consensus among members regarding basic values and customs.
• Durkheim proposed that societies exert social constraint over members’ actions, constraining activities similarly to physical structures.
• His analysis of social change focused on the development of the division of labor, replacing religion as the basis of social cohesion.
• Durkheim’s study of suicide showed social factors, like anomie, influence suicidal behavior, indicating sociological explanations.
• Rapid social change leads to anomie, as traditional moral controls from religion break down, leaving individuals feeling life lacks meaning.
• Durkheim explored the role of religion in maintaining moral order in society through his study, “The Elementary Forms of Religious Life.”

KARL MARX

• Karl Marx, German economic, political, and social theorist, focused on social changes from the Industrial Revolution.
• His ideas contrast with Comte and Durkheim; Marx’s work is rich in sociological insights connecting economic problems to social institutions.
• Marx’s materialist conception of history posits that economic influences, not ideas or values, are the main sources of social change.
• Class conflicts, particularly between the rich (owning capital) and the poor (working class), drive historical development, according to Marx.
• Capitalism, a class system, is characterized by inevitable conflict as the ruling class exploits the working class.
• Marx envisions a future society without divisions between rich and poor, marked by communal ownership and greater equality.
• Marx’s work had a significant impact on the 20th century; more than a third of the world’s population lived in societies inspired by Marx’s ideas until the fall of Soviet communism.
• Sociologists have been influenced by Marx’s ideas about class divisions.

MAX WEBER

• Max Weber, German-born scholar (1864–1920), delved into sociology, economics, law, philosophy, and comparative history.
• Influenced by Marx but critical of some views; rejected materialist conception of history, emphasizing the importance of ideas and values in social change.
• Studied the distinctiveness of Western society compared to other civilizations, making significant contributions to the sociology of religion.
• Weber analyzed the inf luence of Christian beliefs on the rise of capitalism, highlighting the role of cultural ideas and values.
• Explored bureaucracy as a large organization divided into functional jobs and ranked hierarchically, seeing it as an inevitable feature of the modern era.
• Bureaucracy enables efficiency but poses challenges to democratic participation, involving rule by experts without consulting those affected.
• Weber approached sociology with caution, challenging the idea that it could be studied using the same procedures as physics or biology; emphasized the significance of meaning in human behavior.

Neglected Founders

• Comte, Spencer, Durkheim, Marx, and Weber are foundational figures in sociology during the late 19th and early 20th centuries.
• Few women or members of racial minorities had opportunities to become professional sociologists during this period.
• The foundational figures often ignored women and racial minorities despite addressing inequality and exploitation in their theories.
• Some women and minority sociologists made lasting contributions, though their work has been historically neglected.
• Sociologists today should recognize and study the theories developed by these overlooked individuals.

HARRIET MARTINEAU

• Harriet Martineau (1802–1876) is considered the “first woman sociologist.”
• Born and educated in England, she authored over 50 books, essays, and was an advocate for women’s rights and abolition.
• Credited with introducing sociology to England through her translation of Comte’s Positive Philosophy.
• Conducted a systematic study of American society during her travels in the 1830s, detailed in “Society in America.”
• Significantly contributed to sociology through methodological insights.
• Emphasized studying all aspects of a society, including political, religious, and social institutions.
• Advocated for the inclusion of all members in sociological analyses, highlighting the absence of women’s lives in the field.
• Pioneered the examination of previously overlooked issues like marriage, children, domestic life, and race relations.
• Shared Comte’s view that sociologists should not only observe but also act for the benefit of society.

E. B. DU BOIS

• W. E. B. Du Bois (1868–1963): First African American to earn a Harvard doctorate.
• Coined the concept of “double consciousness” to describe the African American identity.
• Argued that African Americans view themselves through others’ eyes due to historical and social factors.
• Emphasized the influence of slavery, segregation, and prejudice on African American identity.
• Focused on race relations in the United States throughout his career.
• Noted for the quote: “The problem of the twentieth century is the problem of the color line” (1903).
• Connected problems faced by African Americans to their social and economic roots.
• First to link social analysis with social reform.
• Founding member of the NAACP, advocating for collective struggle.
• Moved to Ghana in 1961 and died there in 1963, disenchanted with the lack of progress in American race relations.
• Profound impact on American social thought and activism, influencing the Black Lives Matter movement.

Understanding the Modern World: The Sociological Debate

• Marx’s ideas on economic influence and constant transformation in modern societies.
• Capitalism seen as a dynamic system driving technological innovation and global expansion.
• Critics argue that Marx overemphasized economic factors and doubted the centrality of capitalism in modern development.
• Weber, a prominent critic of Marx, proposes that noneconomic factors, particularly religious values, shaped capitalism.
• Weber’s “The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism” suggests a fundamental role of religious values in creating a capitalistic outlook.
• Weber’s view contrasts with Marx’s, emphasizing the role of science and bureaucracy as more fundamental than economic factors.
• Science, technology, and bureaucracy collectively form a rationalization process in Weber’s framework.
• Debate among scholars persists on the correctness of Marx’s or Weber’s interpretation of modern societies.
• Variations within each camp contribute to ongoing disagreements in sociology.

 MODERN THEORETICAL APPROACHES

Symbolic Interactionism

• George Herbert Mead’s influence on sociological thought through symbolic interactionism.
• Mead emphasizes the study of language in analyzing the social world.
• Language enables self-consciousness, allowing individuals to represent objects through symbols.
• Symbols, like the word “tree,” stand for something else and enable thinking beyond immediate sensory experiences.
• Symbolic thought frees humans from being limited to what is immediately visible, heard, or felt.
• Humans, unlike animals, live in a richly symbolic universe, extending even to the sense of self.
• Self-consciousness develops as individuals learn to view themselves from an external perspective, using symbols.
• All interactions involve the exchange of symbols, according to symbolic interactionists.
• Interpersonal interactions involve interpreting clues to understand appropriate behavior and others’ intentions.
• Symbolic interactionism focuses on the detailed processes of interpersonal interaction and how symbols shape understanding.
• Example: Two people on a first date engage in a complex process of symbolic interpretation to assess each other’s true nature and potential for a relationship.

Functionalism

• Symbolic interactionism criticized for focusing on small-scale phenomena, struggling with larger-scale structures.
• Functionalism, an alternative tradition, emphasizes the study of functions contributing to the continuation of society.
• Comte, a functionalist pioneer, likens societal functions to organs’ roles in maintaining the body’s life.
• Functional analysis parallels studying how organs contribute to overall bodily health.
• Moral consensus seen as crucial for societal order and stability, with functionalists emphasizing its role in maintaining social equilibrium.
• Durkheim suggests religion reinforces social values, enhancing social cohesion.
• Talcott Parsons and Robert K. Merton prominent in functionalist development.
• Merton distinguishes between manifest (known and intended) and latent (unintended) functions.
• Example: Hopi rain dance has manifest function of bringing rain, latent function of promoting social cohesion.
• Dysfunctions, contrary to functions, highlight features challenging existing social order.
• Functionalism criticized for emphasizing social cohesion at the expense of recognizing social division and conflict.
• Functional analysis accused of attributing human-like qualities such as “needs” and “purposes” to societies.

Conflict Theories

• Functionalism and symbolic interactionism are not the sole modern theoretical traditions in sociology.
• Conflict theory is another influential approach emphasizing coercion and power in shaping social order.
• Social order seen as maintained through domination, with power in the hands of those with significant political, economic, and social resources.
• Historically, power often held by white men with ample economic and political resources.
• Conflict theory encompasses Marxism and feminist theories as specific approaches under its broad heading.

MARXISM

• Various schools of Marxist thought exist today, showcasing diverse theoretical positions.
• Marxism, in all its variations, sees sociology as a blend of sociological analysis and political reform.
• Emphasizes conflict, class divisions, power, and ideology more than many non-Marxist sociological traditions.
• Power is a central concept in Marxist sociology, representing the ability of individuals or groups to assert their interests, often accompanied by the use of force or the development of ideologies.
• Power, ideology, and conflict are closely interconnected, with many conflicts revolving around the pursuit and maintenance of power.

FEMINISM AND FEMINIST THEORY

• Feminist theory is a prominent field in contemporary sociology, gaining significance despite the limited attention to gender issues by the discipline’s founders.
• The integration of feminism into sociology marked a fundamental shift in the discipline’s approach, influenced by the experiences of feminist theorists in the 1960s and 1970s women’s movement.
• Like Marxism, feminist theory connects sociological analysis with political reform, advocating for action to address gender inequalities in both public and private spheres.
• Feminist sociologists challenge the historical presumption of a male perspective in sociology, emphasizing women’s lives and experiences as central to understanding society.
• Gender relations and inequalities are highlighted as crucial determinants of social life, impacting social interactions and institutions like family, workplace, and education.
• Feminist theory asserts that gendered patterns and inequalities are socially constructed, challenging the notion of their naturalness.
• Contemporary feminist sociology explores the intersectionality of gender, race, and class, influencing new fields like men’s studies, sexuality studies, and LGBTQ studies.
• Theoretical perspectives in feminist sociology underscore power imbalances and advocate for social change by shifting the balance of power, aligning with overarching themes of conflict theories.

Rational Choice Theory

• Max Weber categorized behavior into four types: (1) behavior oriented toward higher values like politics; (2) behavior oriented toward habit, like walking a familiar path; (3) behavior oriented toward affect or emotions, like falling in love; (4) behavior oriented toward self-interest, often termed “instrumental” or “rational” action.
• Rational choice approach, adopted by many sociologists, focuses on behavior driven by self-interest and examines conditions influencing rational responses to opportunities and constraints.
• The rational choice approach suggests that self-interest is a fundamental variable to explain society, even for seemingly irrational behaviors.
• An example of rational choice theory is its application to marriage decisions, explaining the decline in marriage rates in poor African American communities with low employment rates based on self-interest considerations.
• Rational choice theorists see few irrational mysteries in life, but they acknowledge love as an exception, defining it as the irrational act of prioritizing another person’s self-interest over one’s own.
• Despite its utility, the rational choice approach struggles to explain some aspects of life, such as actions like an angry driver tailgating another driver to teach a lesson, where self-interest doesn’t provide a complete explanation.

Postmodern Theory

• Postmodernism rejects the idea of history having a clear shape or progressing towards a specific goal.
• Grand narratives or metanarratives, overall conceptions of history or society, are considered meaningless in postmodernism.
• The collapse of the concept of history challenges the belief in societal progress and the inevitability of a socialist future.
• Postmodern society is characterized by diversity, pluralism, and constant change, with new media playing a dominant role in shaping perceptions and identities.
• Jean Baudrillard, an influential postmodern theorist, argued that electronic media created a chaotic, empty world.
• Baudrillard rejected Marxist ideas about economic forces shaping society and asserted that social life is primarily influenced by signs and images.
• In a media-dominated age, meaning is created by the flow of images, challenging the distinction between reality and media representation.
• Baudrillard suggested that much of the contemporary world is a make-believe universe where people respond to media images rather than real experiences or individuals.
• Reality television blurs the line between actual reality and perceived reality, questioning the authenticity of portrayed lifestyles and characters.

Theoretical Thinking in Sociology

• Theoretical approaches in sociology are broad orientations to the subject matter, while theories are more narrowly focused attempts to explain specific social conditions or events.
• Theories often emerge during the research process and suggest further research questions.
• Sociologists differ in their views on the specificity of theories, with some advocating for grand theoretical schemes and others, like Merton, proposing theories of the middle range.
• Middle-range theories are specific enough for empirical testing and general enough to cover a range of phenomena.
• An example of a middle-range theory is the theory of relative deprivation, which suggests that people’s evaluation of their circumstances depends on the individuals they compare themselves to.
• Assessing theories in sociology is a challenging task, and the absence of a single dominant theoretical approach is seen not as a limitation but as a strength that highlights the vitality and complexity of the sociological enterprise.
• The diversity of theoretical perspectives in sociology provides a rich source of ideas for research and stimulates imaginative capacities, essential for progress in sociological work.

LEVELS OF ANALYSIS: MICROSOCIOLOGY AND 

MACROSOCIOLOGY

• Microsociology focuses on the study of everyday behavior in face-to-face interactions, examining small-scale social phenomena.
• Macrosociology involves the analysis of large-scale social systems, including political, economic, and long-term developmental processes.
• The relationship between micro and macro analysis is interconnected, emphasizing the interplay between individual interactions and broader institutional frameworks.
• Macro analysis is crucial for understanding the institutional background that shapes daily life in societies.
• Daily activities are influenced by broader institutional frameworks; for example, the nature of interactions in modern societies with constant contact with strangers.
• Micro studies are essential for revealing patterns in broad institutions, as face-to-face interactions form the basis of all social organization, regardless of scale.
• Face-to-face interactions contribute to understanding larger social structures, such as studying the interactions within a business corporation to comprehend its functioning.
• Interaction in micro contexts influences larger social processes, and macro systems, in turn, impact confined settings of social life.

 HOW CAN SOCIOLOGY HELP US?

• Sociology, as advocated by C. Wright Mills, has practical applications in daily life, influencing decision-making from college applications to relationships.
• Sociological imagination encourages viewing the social world from multiple perspectives, enhancing understanding of others’ experiences and problems.
• Awareness of social differences is crucial for successful practical policies, as seen in the example of a white social worker in a predominantly black community.
• Sociology helps assess public-policy initiatives, revealing potential failures or unintended consequences, as seen in the case of post-World War II public-housing projects.
• Self-enlightenment is a key outcome of sociology, providing increased self-understanding and influencing personal behavior and societal impact.
• Sociology is valuable for influencing policy, as self-enlightened groups can use sociological research to respond to or initiate reforms.
• Developing a sociological eye and research skills opens career opportunities in various fields, including industrial consulting, urban planning, social work, and more.
• Sociologists often develop a social conscience, leading to debates about neutrality in moral and political controversies within the field.
• Sociology has practical implications for addressing inequalities, social justice issues, and global deprivations, making it relevant to social change efforts.
• Sociologists can draw on their expertise to take sides on practical issues and contribute to societal improvement.
• The study of sociology is not just an academic pursuit but an exciting endeavor with real-world applications, encouraging an imaginative and relatable approach to the subject.