ORIGIN OF THE TERM ‘PHILOSOPHY’

• A precise definition of philosophy is not practicable and attempting one early on may be misleading.

• Sarcastically, philosophy might be called “everything and/or nothing“.

• Philosophy differs from special sciences as it attempts to give a picture of human thought as a whole and even of Reality.

• However, philosophy’s content often seems to evaporate, giving an impression of having no substantial body of agreed knowledge like sciences do.

• This is partly because when agreed knowledge is attained, the subject typically shifts from philosophy to science.

• The term ‘philosopher’ originally meant “lover of wisdom,” stemming from Socrates’ idea that true wisdom is knowing one’s ignorance.

• Historically, philosophy included what we now call sciences, as seen in terms like “Chair of Natural Philosophy“.

• As specialized knowledge grew, distinct fields broke off from philosophy to become independent disciplines (e.g., Psychology, Sociology).

• The sphere of philosophy tends to contract as empirical knowledge advances.

• However, philosophy will never shrink to nothing because it addresses fundamental concepts and general pictures of human experience and reality that cannot be fully determined by special sciences.

• Despite lack of agreement among philosophers, disagreement can be valuable and complementary rather than wasted effort.

• Philosophy is both an individual and social process, benefiting from division of labor and diverse perspectives emphasizing different sides of questions.

• Much of philosophy concerns how we know things (epistemology) rather than the things themselves, contributing to a perception of being lacking in content.

• Discussions on truth and knowledge in philosophy can influence which propositions we accept as true in practice.

• Philosophical discussions on the theory of knowledge have had an indirect but important impact on the sciences.

THE USE OF PHILOSOPHY

• Many ask, “What is the use of philosophy?” since it does not directly produce material wealth.

• Material wealth itself is valued only for its contribution to happiness, not as an end.

• One of the most important sources of happiness is the search for truth and contemplation of reality, which is the philosopher’s aim.

• Those who experience this intellectual pleasure often regard it as superior in quality to most other pleasures.

• Since most industrial goods have value as sources of pleasure, philosophy can compete with industries in utility, despite few being employed full-time as philosophers.

• Even if valued only as a source of innocent and valuable pleasure, philosophy is worthwhile for philosophers and those they teach and influence.

• Philosophy has a very important indirect influence on the lives of many who never study it directly.

• This influence filters down through sermons, literature, newspapers, and oral tradition, shaping the general world outlook.

• Christianity’s development was significantly influenced by philosophy.

• Ideas like “no man should be treated only as a means” and “government should depend on consent of the governed” originated from philosophers.

• Philosophy has had especially great influence in the political sphere.

• The American Constitution is largely an application of John Locke’s political ideas, replacing monarchy with a president.

• Rousseau’s ideas significantly influenced the French Revolution of 1789.

• Philosophy’s influence on politics can be bad or good; for example, some 19th-century German philosophers contributed to exaggerated nationalism linked to Nazism, though their blame is debated.

• Since politics inevitably absorbs philosophical ideas, it is important to promote good philosophy to ensure better political outcomes.

• A better philosophy could have spared the world many horrors.

• Therefore, philosophy has value regarding material wealth by influencing politics favorably, which can lead to greater wealth than a bad philosophy might allow.

• The development of science and its practical benefits depended heavily on its philosophical background.

• Civilization’s growth can be linked to philosophical shifts in the idea of causation, moving from magical to scientific thinking.

• The scientific outlook itself is a form of philosophy, initially shaped largely by philosophers.

• Philosophy should not be approached mainly as a means to material wealth, as this limits its true value.

• Its chief contribution is to the intangible intellectual background shaping the emotional mood and outlook of a civilization.

• Alfred North Whitehead described philosophy’s gifts as insight, foresight, and a sense of the worth of life, which energizes civilized effort.

• Without a co-ordinating philosophy of life spread throughout society, civilization faces decadence, boredom, and slackening effort.

• Philosophy clarifies fundamental beliefs that determine where attention and character are focused.

• The character of a civilization is greatly influenced by its general view of life and reality, traditionally shaped by religious teaching.

• Religious views themselves are influenced by philosophical thought and require continual review by reason to avoid folly.

• Those who discard religion should develop a new worldview, which is essentially engaging in philosophy.

• Science cannot replace philosophy; science raises philosophical problems it cannot solve, such as:

  • The place of facts in the whole scheme of things

  • The relation of facts to human minds

  • The existence of the physical world

  • The legitimacy of induction

  • The existence of the soul, purpose of the universe, and human freedom

• Philosophy may not solve these problems, but if it cannot, nothing else can.

• Science presupposes concepts within philosophy’s domain and cannot start or progress without tacit answers to philosophical questions.

• The scientific outlook depends on a coherent worldview, often derived from philosophers’ assumptions.

• The mechanistic view of the universe in science (last 300 years) comes chiefly from Descartes.

• Though successful, this mechanistic scheme is partly breaking down, and scientists may need philosophers to help build a new framework.

• Philosophy, especially critical philosophy, trains impartial judgment, understanding of evidence, and what to expect in proofs.

• This training guards against emotional bias and hasty conclusions, especially in political controversies.

• If political debates were approached philosophically, war could be avoided.

• The success of democracy depends on citizens’ ability to distinguish good and bad arguments and avoid confusion.

• Critical philosophy sets an ideal for good thinking and teaches how to remove confusions.

• Whitehead says no successful democracy exists without general education conveying a philosophical outlook.

• While humans may fail to live up to their philosophical beliefs due to lack of will, not ignorance, general beliefs deeply affect human progress or degeneration.

• Some parts of philosophy may seem impractical, but such studies can influence world outlook, ethics, and religion.

• Different parts of philosophy aim to form a coherent worldview, so even remote concepts may impact practical life.

• Philosophy should not fear questions about its practical value, but purely pragmatic views of philosophy are inadequate.

• Philosophy is valuable for itself, not just for its indirect effects.

• Pursuing philosophy disinterestedly is the best way to find truth.

• Premature concern about practical effects can handicap the search for truth.

• Practical effects cannot be the criterion of truth; beliefs are useful because they are true, not true because they are useful.

MAIN DIVISIONS OF PHILOSOPHY

• Philosophy is commonly divided into several sub-classes.

• (1) Metaphysics studies the nature of reality in its most general aspects, as far as humans can understand.

• Metaphysics addresses questions such as:

  • What is the relation between matter and mind?

  • Which is primary?

  • Are humans free?

  • Is the self a substance or merely a series of experiences?

  • Is the universe infinite?

  • Does God exist?

  • To what extent is the universe a unity or a diversity?

  • Is the universe a rational system, and if so, how far?

• (2) Opposed to metaphysics is Critical Philosophy (also called speculative philosophy), which analyzes and criticizes the concepts of common sense and sciences.

• Sciences presuppose concepts not investigable by scientific methods, so these concepts belong to philosophy.

• All sciences except mathematics presuppose the conception of natural law, which is a philosophical concern, not a scientific one.

• In everyday conversation, we presuppose concepts full of philosophical problems, such as:

  • Matter, mind, cause, substance, number.

• Philosophy’s important task is to analyze these concepts, understand their real meaning, and assess how far their common-sense application is justified.

• The part of critical philosophy investigating the nature and criterion of truth and how we come to know is called Epistemology (theory of knowledge).

• Epistemology addresses questions like:

  • How do we define truth?

  • What is the distinction between knowledge and belief?

  • Can we ever know anything with certainty?

  • What are the roles of reasoning, intuition, and sense-experience?

• The present work focuses primarily on Metaphysics and Epistemology as the most fundamental and characteristically philosophical branches.

• Other branches of study are allied to philosophy but distinct and possess a certain independence of their own.