Legitimation of the Caste – Varnasrama Dharma

• Social life in India during the post-Mauryan period was rich and comprehensive, encompassing various aspects of daily life.

• Literary and archaeological sources provide detailed information about different aspects of social life, including the division of society into groups, the asrama system, samskaras, family, food, dress, and ornaments.

• Evidence from this period also sheds light on entertainment, such as singing, dancing, music, dramatic performances, and magical shows.

• Despite the invasions by foreigners like the Greeks, the Parthians, the Sakas, and the Kushanas, the basic structure of Indian society remained unaffected, maintaining its vitality and resilience.

Varnasrama System

• Hindu society was based on the unique system of varnasrama, which dealt with the organization and management of both the individual and the group or society.

• The two systems, Varna and Asrama, together form the varnasrama vyavastha, which refers to the organization of Varna and Asrama.

• These systems are interrelated and inter-coordinated with each other, functioning together in Hindu social organization.

Varna System

• The Dharmasastras formulated the theory regarding the origin of the Varna system.

• According to the Manu-Smriti, the four varnas proceeded from the limbs of the Creator.

• The same theory is also found in the Mahabharata, which states the Brahmana originated from the mouth of the Creator, Kshatriya from His arm, Vaisya from His two thighs, and Sudra from His feet.

• This theory is based on the old Vedic concept found in the Purushasuktam of the Rigveda.

• The main idea is that the Varna system is God’s creation and not man’s, giving it sanctity.

• Manu asserts that there are only four varnas: Brahmana, Kshatriya, Vaisya, and Sudra, with no fifth Varna.

• The Milindapanho mentions the four varnas and their respective duties.

• The Brahmanical hierarchy continued to hold a special position in society, with two classes of Brahmanas: degenerate and respected.

• The Purana literature, particularly the Kurma Purana, describes degenerate Brahmanas who relied on Sudras for their livelihood and were subservient to them.

• This description of the Kali age in the Puranas hints at conditions during the post-Mauryan period.

• Despite the degenerate Brahmanas, many respected Brahmanas held an exalted position in society.

• The Purana literature classifies Brahmanas into categories like rsis, Saptarsi, Brahmasri, Devarsi, and Rajarsi, who possessed supernatural powers and were engaged in knowledge pursuits.

• The Mahabharata states that Brahmanas are superior to all other castes.

• Manu claims the Brahmana is the master of the varnas due to their superiority of origin, discipline (through Vedic lore), and the eminence of sacraments.

• The lawgivers emphasize that Vedic studies should be confined to the twice-born.

• Brahmanas dedicated themselves to the study and teaching of the Vedas and other learning.

• Some Brahmanas also taught Sudras, but these teachers were not respected in society.

• Manu decrees that a person who instructs Sudra pupils or learns from a Sudra teacher should not be invited to the sraddha.

• In the post-Mauryan period, Brahmanas held an honored position as priests in sacrifices.

• They accepted daksina in sacrifices, which served as a means of profit.

• Gifts were another source of income for Brahmanas.

• The sacrifices became more elaborate, but the income from them did not increase proportionately.

• Heretics began preaching against Brahmanism, sacrifices, and funeral rites, contributing to the decline of sacrifices.

• The principle of non-violence and the growing popularity of ahimsa led to the decline of Vedic sacrifices.

• Anti-Brahmanism impacted the Brahmanas’ main source of income—sacrifices.

• Dharmasastras, mainly written by Brahmanas, adopted various means to popularize dana (gifts) in society, associating gifts with religious merit.

• It was believed that gifts given to Brahmanas benefitted the pitrganas (ancestors) of the donor.

• The Puranas stated that those who do not donate are not devotees of Vishnu, and they are assigned a hell.

• The Vishnu Purana even advised Sudras to make gifts to Brahmanas.

• Brahmanas accepted donations from all, including foreigners, as evidenced by inscriptions from the time of Usavadata and the Kusanas.

• Inscriptions from Mathura Brahmi mention donations made by foreigners like Banakapati and Kharasalerapati to feed Brahmanas.

• Changing circumstances and social pressures led some Brahmanas to abandon their hereditary roles as teachers and priests.

• Dharmasastras permitted Brahmanas to take up the professions of other castes for livelihood, including the occupations of Kshatriyas in times of distress.

• Some Brahmanas worked as vendors of Soma, village priests, or even woodmen, indicating they pursued various livelihoods, including lowly ones.

• Laws were enacted to improve the economic position of Brahmanas, such as prescribing low interest rates for Brahmanas compared to other castes.

• Manu prescribed that a srotriya (learned Brahmana) should be free from taxes and was treated favorably in cases of treasure-trove.

• Brahmanas were granted special protection of their property, with Kshatriyas forbidden from seizing the possessions of a virtuous Brahmana, even in times of famine.

• Dharmasastras ensured the economic well-being of the Brahmana Varna.

• Brahmanas played an active role in administration, and some, like the Sungas, Kanvas, and Satavahanas, were rulers during the post-Mauryan period.

• Some Brahmanas even revolted against the tyrannical rule of kings.

• Brahmanas were appointed as judges to administer justice.

• Smrtikaras advised kings to dispense justice with the help of a learned Brahmana.

• Manu suggested that learned Brahmanas should be appointed as ministers.

• Brahmanas were given special privileges in the field of justice, such as being exempt from being cited as a witness by non-Brahmanas.

• Brahmanas were given lesser punishment compared to other castes and were not to be offended or assaulted.

• Severe punishments were prescribed for actions like threatening, striking, or insulting a Brahmana.

• Brahmanas were exonerated from six types of punishment.

• Manu prescribed fines for Brahmanas who were guilty of false evidence, rape, or adultery.

• Brahmanas were not allowed to mix with Sudras and Chandalas; these groups were prohibited from contact with the Brahmanas.

• Brahmanas enjoyed the highest social status, with access to various economic, social, and religious facilities.

• Some Sudras openly defied the existing social system and dishonored the Brahmanas, as seen in the Mahabharata.

• The Mahabharata suggests that Sudras were seen as destroyers of the king and defiers of the established order.

• Actors, gamblers, keepers of gaming houses, and similar individuals from the Sudra class were considered a source of disorder to the state.

• The Puranas describe the behavior of Sudras towards Brahmanas, such as Sudra officials forcing Brahmanas to give up seats or beating them.

• These descriptions of the Kali age highlight the deteriorating condition of the Brahmanas in the post-Mauryan period.

• Causes for Sudra defiance include foreign invasions and the subsequent upheaval among Sudras, leading to discontent and hostility towards Brahmanas.

• R.S. Sharma suggests that Sudras turned against Brahmanas due to the Brahmanas’ discriminatory provisions against them.

• The rise of new guilds, crafts, economic policies of rulers, and the arrival of foreigners helped improve the position of the Sudras, causing them to resist the old social order.

• Kshatriyas held the second position in Hindu society, with duties to protect the people, give presents to Brahmanas, perform sacrifices, and study the scriptures.

• Visnu Purana describes the Kshatriya’s duties as protecting the earth, and how by fulfilling this role, a king gains merit from sacrifices.

• Kshatriyas were allowed to adopt the livelihood of a Vaisya during times of distress, but not that of a Sudra.

• Vedic education was important for Kshatriyas, and they were often well-versed in it, as seen with kings like Saunaka, Krta, and Satanika.

• Kshatriya kings like Priyavarta’s sons were also versed in yoga and other spiritual practices.

• Kshatriyas had the right to perform Vedic sacrifices and tapas (penances), with examples of kings retiring to forests for ascetic practices.

• Both Brahmanas and Kshatriyas were eligible to observe fasting vows.

• Indra’s heaven was assigned to Kshatriyas who did not flee from battle.

• In judicial administration, a Kshatriya could act as a witness only in the transactions of his own caste.

• A Kshatriya was to swear by his chariot or the animal he rode in judicial matters, while other castes swore by different things.

• Punishments for Kshatriyas were more severe than those for Brahmanas but lesser than those for Vaisyas or Sudras.

• Manu prescribed a fine of 500 panas for a Kshatriya who violated a guarded woman.

• If a Kshatriya and a Vaisya offended a guarded Brahmani, they were to be punished like a Sudra or burned in a fire of dry grass.

• Manu formulates rules to distinguish the Kshatriya from other varnas, stating that the Kshatriya originated from the arm of the Creator.

• A Kshatriya’s name should denote power and protection, and the greeting for a Kshatriya differs from other varnas.

• Kshatriyas, being a twice-born varna, are prohibited from certain food items.

• The raksasa form of marriage is prescribed for Kshatriyas, and they can also practice asura, gandharva, and paisacha forms of marriage.

• Niyoga was practiced among Kshatriyas, with Brahmanas being called to beget offspring on Kshatriya women.

• Inter-varna marriage was also common among Kshatriyas.

• Manu disapproves of a Sudra woman being the first wife of a Brahmana or Kshatriya.

• The Kshatriya’s relationship with Brahmanas is crucial, with the king’s duty to protect and support them as they preserve the Vedas.

• Brahmanas regarded themselves as superior to Kshatriyas because of their spiritual knowledge, but Kshatriyas held temporal power.

• The Mahabharata states that Brahmanas were the political refuge for Kshatriyas, although not all Kshatriyas accepted Brahmanical superiority.

• King Nahusa imposed taxes on sages, and King Pururava took property from Brahmanas, defying Dharmasastra.

• Puranas mention the armed conflicts between Brahmanas and Kshatriyas, with Parasurama destroying the Kshatriyas several times.

• Despite conflicts, the overall relationship between Brahmanas and Kshatriyas remained cordial.

• Vaisyas were regarded as the third varna, with their main professions being agriculture, trade, and cattle-rearing.

• Manu instructs the king to compel Vaisyas and Sudras to perform their duties, warning that failure to do so could lead to disorder.

• This instruction may reflect a period of socioeconomic crisis, possibly worsened by foreign invasions.

• Vaisyas sometimes took up the profession of Sudras, especially in the Kali age, where they may maintain themselves through servitude or mechanical arts.

• Manu allows a Vaisya to adopt the Sudra’s lifestyle during times of distress.

• Vaisyas typically included traders, merchants, agriculturists, and cattle-breeders, with various sub-castes within the Vaisya class.

• During the Gupta age, the Vaisya caste included sub-groups like agriculturists, merchants, and cattle-breeders, with more focus on sub-groups than the theoretical varna.

• In judiciary, Vaisyas could give evidence when called by a suitor, and were required to swear by grain and gold.

• In case of perjury, Vaisyas were to be fined and banished, with a higher fine than Brahmanas or Kshatriyas.

• Vaisyas were distinct from other varnas in many respects, with Manu placing them above Sudras in the order of varnas.

• Vaisyas had different forms of greeting, as prescribed by law, and distinctions were made even in the naming ceremony.

• Manu-Smrti states that Vaisyas could follow Asura, Gandharva, and Paisacha forms of marriage, with the Asura marriage being prescribed for both Vaisyas and Sudras.

• Vaisyas were prohibited from marrying a Sudra woman; a Vaisya having male offspring by a Sudra wife would become an outcaste.

• Vaisyas had the right to study the Vedas and could make gifts to Brahmanas.

• The impurity period for Vaisyas after the death of a relative was 15 days, compared to 1 month for Sudras.

• Vaisyas could purge impurity by touching the goad or nose-string of their oxen.

• Maruta heaven was assigned to Vaisyas who performed their duties properly, and they had the right to worship Vishnu and Shiva.

• Sudras were the fourth varna and had various prescribed ways of earning a livelihood.

• Manu reiterates that Sudras must serve the three higher varnas; the Mahabharata and Visnu Purana support this idea, with the Visnu Purana praising Sudras for their service to the higher varnas during the Kali age.

• Sudras’ service was necessary for the functioning of higher varnas, though their wages were low and their services not highly remunerative.

• Sudras were employed as hired laborers and slaves, often in agriculture and as artisans.

• Manu states that Sudras should take up artisan occupations only if they fail to secure a livelihood through service to the higher varnas.

• In the post-Mauryan period, the conditions of artisans improved, and some formed guilds.

• Sudras engaged in various artisan professions such as weavers, wood-workers, smiths, leather-dressers, potters, painters, and metal-workers.

• The Gupta period saw a growth in Sudras working as artisans and engaged in trade. The Amarakosa from this period lists various Sudra sub-groups including weavers, tailors, blacksmiths, musicians, and actors.

• Sudras earned money through trade, working as hired laborers, slaves, carriers, and more.

• Manu forbids Sudras from accumulating wealth, but this law was ineffective, as Sudras did accumulate property.

• Sudras were allowed to own property, as seen in Yajnavalkya-Smriti and other literary sources, which mention inheritance laws where Sudra sons could inherit half of their father’s property.

• Sudras also worked in banking and money-lending. Evidence from the 2nd century A.D. shows money being deposited with potters, oil-millers, and weavers.

• Buddhists deposited money with Sudras for providing essentials to monks, indicating that Sudras could accumulate wealth contrary to Manu’s laws.

• Sudras played a role in the administration during the post-Mauryan period, with some becoming kings.

• There was no liberal attitude in appointing judges, and Sudras were not considered competent to act as witnesses.

• Sudras faced severe punishment for defaming, insulting, or assaulting the twice-born.

• Dharmasastras mention the old story of creation indicating the lowest position of the Sudra in society.

• Patanjali notes that an elevated term was not used in addressing Sudras; bho was used for Kshatriyas and Vaisyas, but not for Sudras.

• According to the Natyasastra, a mode of address indicating command was used with servants, artisans, and mechanics.

• The life of a Sudra was not valued as highly as that of higher varnas.

• Manu prescribes penance for the sin of murder, with different durations depending on the victim’s varna. The penance for killing a Sudra was much shorter than for a Brahmana.

• The prayaschitta (expiation) for killing a Sudra was considered equivalent to killing small animals like cats, dogs, and frogs.

• Naming the child: Sudras had to choose names associated with contempt, reflecting their low social status.

• A wide gulf existed between Brahmanas and Sudras, with Brahmanas advised not to associate with Sudras.

• Manu prohibits a snataka (a learned Brahmana) from traveling with Sudras and not to accept food offered by a Sudra.

• Penalty for a Brahmana accepting food from a Sudra: three-day fast if done unintentionally, and a more severe penance if done intentionally.

• Steps were taken to prevent social contact between the lower varnas and Brahmanas.

• Sudras were not allowed to study the Vedas, but they were not debarred from general education.

• The rise of the philosophical systems of Yoga and Samkhya in the 3rd century A.D. allowed Sudras to engage with these doctrines.

• Sudras were deprived of several religious rites and could not perform Vedic sacrifices or consecrate sacred fires.

• Manu states that Sudras have no right to follow the dharma of the Arya and should not be associated with the performance of rites.

• Brahmanas should not beg from a Sudra for sacrifice materials.

• In the 3rd century A.D., there were changes in the religious rights of Sudras, allowing them to perform sacred libations and certain sacrifices.

• Yajnavalkya allowed Sudras to perform five sacrifices using the namaskara mantra.

• Visnu Purana refers to Sudras performing pitrsraddha (rituals for ancestors) and offering water to ancestors.

• Bhasa mentions that Sudras worshipped deities without mantras, and some Brahmanas officiated as priests for Sudras, though they were socially condemned.

• The Visnu Purana assigns Gandharva heaven to Sudras engaged in menial services during their lifetime.

• Sudras were considered the most impure section of society, with a purification period of one month.

• Sudras could become pure by touching their staff.

• Sudras showed some inclinations towards heretical doctrines, but Brahmanical society did allow them to lead an ascetic life.

• Sudras could embrace Bhagavatism and Saivism.

• Sudras were primarily employed as domestic servants, agricultural laborers, slaves, and wage-earning laborers.

• Sudras also followed the professions of artisans and were involved in trade and banking.

• Despite Manu’s laws, Sudras accumulated wealth and performed various economic roles in society.

• Sudras were given the right to general education and to engage in Bhagavatism and Saivism despite being deprived of Vedic education.