Population Geography – UGC NET – Solved PYQs

1. Match the List I with List II and select the correct answer using the codes given below. (SEPT 2013)

Codes:
(1) A–III, B–IV, C–II, D–I
(2) A–IV, B–III, C–I, D–II
(3) A–III, B–IV, C–I, D–II
(4) A–I, B–II, C–III, D–IV

Correct Answer: (3) A–III, B–IV, C–I, D–II

The correct matching is A–III, B–IV, C–I, D–II. Post-neonatal mortality age refers to deaths occurring between 28 days and 364 days after birth. This period follows the neonatal stage and forms an important component of infant mortality statistics. Mortality during this age is often influenced by nutritional deficiencies, infections, environmental conditions, and access to healthcare services.

CMR (Child Mortality Rate) generally refers to mortality among children less than five years of age. It is a widely used indicator of the health status of a population and reflects the effectiveness of healthcare systems, immunization coverage, nutrition levels, sanitation facilities, and maternal care. International organizations frequently use the under-five mortality rate to compare health outcomes across countries.

Neonatal mortality age includes deaths occurring within the first 28 days of life. This period is considered the most vulnerable stage of infancy because newborns are highly susceptible to birth complications, prematurity, congenital abnormalities, infections, and inadequate neonatal care. The Neonatal Mortality Rate (NMR) is regarded as a sensitive indicator of maternal and child health services.

IMR (Infant Mortality Rate) refers to deaths occurring among infants less than one year of age. It includes both neonatal mortality and post-neonatal mortality. The IMR is one of the most important demographic and public health indicators because it reflects overall social, economic, and healthcare conditions within a society. Lower infant mortality rates are generally associated with improved healthcare infrastructure, better nutrition, higher literacy levels, and enhanced living standards.

In demographic and public health studies, these mortality measures are used extensively to assess population health, monitor developmental progress, and formulate healthcare policies. The correct matching is A–III, B–IV, C–I, D–II, which corresponds to Option (3).

2. International migration is no longer a factor in population distribution mainly because (SEPT 2013)

(1) People do not wish to migrate
(2) People are afraid of racial prejudices
(3) Nations have placed restrictions on migration
(4) Employment opportunities are not bright

Correct Answer: (3) Nations have placed restrictions on migration

International migration refers to the movement of people across national boundaries for the purpose of settlement, employment, education, family reunification, or other reasons. Historically, international migration played a major role in shaping the population distribution of many regions of the world. Large-scale migrations from Europe to North America, South America, Australia, and other regions significantly altered demographic patterns and contributed to the settlement and development of vast territories.

In earlier centuries, migration across countries was often less regulated, allowing millions of people to move relatively freely in search of land, employment, security, and better living conditions. These movements had a profound impact on the distribution, density, and composition of populations across continents. Many countries with relatively small indigenous populations experienced substantial population growth through immigration.

In the modern era, however, most countries have established strict immigration policies, visa requirements, border controls, citizenship regulations, and employment restrictions. Governments regulate migration to address concerns related to national security, economic stability, labour markets, social integration, and resource management. These legal and administrative controls have significantly reduced the ability of international migration to redistribute population on the scale witnessed in earlier periods.

Option (1) is incorrect because people continue to migrate internationally in large numbers for employment, education, safety, and family reasons. Human mobility remains an important feature of the modern world. Option (2) may influence migration decisions in some cases, but racial prejudice is not the primary reason why international migration has become less effective as a major factor in global population distribution. Option (4) is also not universally correct because many regions continue to attract migrants due to favourable economic opportunities and higher living standards.

Population geographers often distinguish between natural increase and migration as components of population change. While international migration still affects population growth and demographic composition in many countries, its role in large-scale population redistribution has become more limited because of government-imposed restrictions and regulatory frameworks governing cross-border movement.

The principal reason international migration is no longer as significant a factor in population distribution as it was in the past is that nations have placed restrictions on migration, making Option (3) the correct answer.

3. Which one of the following statements is not correct about migration? (SEPT 2013)

(1) Migration varies inversely with the distance between source and destination
(2) The majority of migrants move in order to improve their economic conditions
(3) Governments create migration policies to attract the talents that they lack
(4) Women tend to move longer distances than men

Correct Answer: (4) Women tend to move longer distances than men

Migration refers to the movement of people from one place to another with the intention of temporary or permanent residence. It is influenced by a variety of economic, social, political, cultural, and environmental factors. Population geographers have developed several theories and principles to explain migration patterns, one of the most influential being the work of E. G. Ravenstein, whose laws of migration continue to be widely discussed in demographic studies.

Statement (1) is correct. According to the distance-decay principle and Ravenstein’s migration laws, migration generally varies inversely with distance. As the distance between the source and destination increases, the number of migrants tends to decrease because longer-distance migration involves higher costs, greater uncertainty, and increased social and cultural adjustments. Most migrants move relatively short distances, while fewer undertake long-distance movements.

Statement (2) is also correct. Economic motives remain the most important cause of migration in many parts of the world. People frequently move in search of employment, higher wages, better living standards, improved educational opportunities, and greater economic security. The concepts of push factors and pull factors are often used to explain these movements, with unemployment and poverty pushing people away from one region and better opportunities attracting them elsewhere.

Statement (3) is correct as well. Many countries actively formulate immigration policies to attract highly skilled workers, scientists, engineers, medical professionals, researchers, entrepreneurs, and other talented individuals. Such policies are designed to address labour shortages, promote innovation, and enhance economic competitiveness. Programs for skilled migration in countries such as Canada, Australia, and several European nations provide examples of this approach.

Statement (4) is not correct. Classical migration studies, including Ravenstein’s observations, suggest that women tend to predominate in short-distance migration, whereas men have historically been more likely to undertake long-distance and international migration, especially for employment-related reasons. Although modern migration patterns have become more complex and women now participate extensively in international migration, the statement that women generally move longer distances than men does not align with the traditional principles of migration geography commonly used in demographic studies and competitive examinations.

Migration continues to shape population distribution, urbanization, labour markets, and cultural landscapes across the world. Distance, economic opportunity, government policies, and social networks remain among the most significant determinants of migration patterns, making Option (4) the incorrect statement and the correct answer to the question.

4. Given below are two statements, one labelled as Assertion (A) and the other labelled as Reason (R). Select the correct answer. (SEPT 2013)

Assertion (A): The pattern of consumption of goods and services varies from one country to another.

Reason (R): The population distribution varies from one country to another.

Codes:

(1) Both (A) and (R) are correct and (R) explains (A)
(2) Both (A) and (R) are correct, but (R) does not explain (A)
(3) (A) is true, but (R) is false
(4) (A) is false, but (R) is true

Correct Answer: (2) Both (A) and (R) are correct, but (R) does not explain (A)

The Assertion (A) is correct. The pattern of consumption of goods and services differs significantly from one country to another due to variations in income levels, economic development, culture, lifestyle, technology, urbanization, education, and consumer preferences. Developed countries generally exhibit higher consumption of manufactured goods, energy, transportation services, healthcare, and recreational facilities, whereas developing countries often allocate a larger share of expenditure to food, housing, and basic necessities. Consumption patterns are also influenced by climatic conditions, social customs, religious beliefs, and government policies.

The Reason (R) is also correct. Population distribution varies widely across countries because of differences in physical geography, climate, resource availability, economic opportunities, historical settlement patterns, and levels of development. Some countries have highly concentrated populations in urban centres, river valleys, or coastal regions, while others have more dispersed settlement patterns. Variations in population density and distribution are important aspects of population geography and influence economic and social development.

Although both statements are individually true, the reason does not provide the principal explanation for the assertion. Differences in consumption patterns arise mainly from disparities in economic conditions, standards of living, purchasing power, cultural traditions, technological advancement, and social structure. Population distribution may influence market size and the spatial organization of consumption, but it is not the primary factor responsible for variations in the consumption of goods and services among countries.

For example, two countries may have similar population distributions but very different consumption patterns because of differences in per capita income, industrialization, or cultural preferences. Likewise, countries with contrasting population distributions may display comparable consumption patterns if their economic and social characteristics are similar. This demonstrates that the variation in consumption is influenced more directly by socio-economic and cultural factors than by population distribution alone.

Since both the assertion and the reason are correct, but the reason does not adequately explain the assertion, the correct answer is Option (2): Both (A) and (R) are correct, but (R) does not explain (A).

5. According to Lynch, the elements which help to perceive urban environment are (SEPT 2013)

(1) Path and node
(2) Path, node and landmark
(3) Boundaries and districts
(4) Path, boundaries, districts, nodes and landmark

Correct Answer: (4) Path, boundaries, districts, nodes and landmark

The question is based on the influential work of Kevin Lynch, an American urban planner and author of the landmark book The Image of the City (1960). Lynch examined how people perceive, organize, and navigate urban spaces. He argued that individuals develop a mental image of a city through certain physical elements that make the urban environment understandable, memorable, and navigable.

According to Lynch, there are five fundamental elements that contribute to the perception of the urban environment. These are paths, edges (boundaries), districts, nodes, and landmarks. Together, these elements form the basis of what Lynch called the imageability or legibility of a city, meaning the ease with which people can recognize and organize urban space into a coherent pattern.

Paths are the channels along which people move, such as streets, roads, walkways, railways, and transit routes. They are often the most important elements in people’s mental maps because movement through the city largely occurs along these routes. Edges or boundaries are linear features that act as limits or separators, such as rivers, walls, coastlines, railway embankments, or major highways. They help define spatial divisions within the urban landscape.

Districts are relatively large areas characterized by a common identity or recognizable character. Residential neighborhoods, commercial zones, university campuses, and industrial areas often function as districts. People commonly identify parts of a city based on these distinct areas.

Nodes are strategic focal points where activities are concentrated or where movement converges. Major intersections, transport terminals, public squares, and commercial centers frequently serve as nodes. These locations act as important reference points within the urban structure.

Landmarks are prominent physical objects that stand out from their surroundings and aid orientation. Monuments, towers, churches, temples, statues, and iconic buildings often function as landmarks. Unlike nodes, which are entered and experienced directly, landmarks are generally external points of reference visible from a distance.

Lynch emphasized that cities possessing clearly identifiable paths, boundaries, districts, nodes, and landmarks are easier to understand and navigate. These elements collectively shape people’s mental images of urban areas and play a crucial role in urban design, planning, and spatial cognition. Since all five elements are included in option (4), the correct answer is Option (4) Path, boundaries, districts, nodes and landmark.

6. Migration from developed to less developed region is called as (DEC 2013)

(1) Emigration
(2) Immigration
(3) Perverse migration
(4) Reverse migration

Correct Answer: (3) Perverse migration

Migration is the movement of people from one place to another for temporary or permanent settlement. In population geography, migration flows are often analyzed in terms of their direction, causes, and socio-economic implications. Most migration movements generally occur from less developed regions to more developed regions because people are attracted by better employment opportunities, higher incomes, improved living standards, better education, and enhanced healthcare facilities.

Migration from a developed region to a less developed region is considered unusual when viewed in the context of conventional economic migration patterns. Such movement is referred to as perverse migration. The term is used because the direction of movement runs contrary to the expected flow from economically less developed areas toward more developed areas. Perverse migration may occur for various reasons, including retirement, lower cost of living, business investments, resource-based activities, lifestyle preferences, environmental considerations, or government-sponsored settlement schemes.

Option (1), emigration, refers simply to the act of leaving one’s country or region to settle elsewhere. It describes migration from the perspective of the place of origin and does not indicate the developmental status of either region. Option (2), immigration, refers to entering a country or region from another place and similarly does not specify the direction of movement in terms of development levels.

Option (4), reverse migration, generally refers to the return movement of migrants to their place of origin after having lived elsewhere. In contemporary discussions, the term is often used to describe workers returning from urban areas to rural areas or migrants returning to their home regions during economic crises or emergencies. It is not specifically defined as movement from developed to less developed regions.

Population geographers frequently examine migration streams using concepts such as push factors, pull factors, distance decay, intervening opportunities, and migration selectivity. Within this framework, migration from a developed region to a less developed region is categorized as perverse migration because it moves against the dominant economic gradient that characterizes most migration flows. This makes Option (3) Perverse migration the correct answer.

7. Demographic transition is a framework that explores the historical sequence of changes in (DEC 2013)

I. Fertility and migration
II. Mortality and age-structure
III. Mortality and migration
IV. Age-structure and sex composition

Codes:

(1) I and IV are correct
(2) III and IV are correct
(3) Only I is correct
(4) I and II are correct

Correct Answer: (4) I and II are correct

Demographic Transition Theory is one of the most important frameworks in population geography and demography. It explains the long-term transformation of population patterns as societies move from traditional agrarian economies to modern industrial and post-industrial economies. The theory describes how changes in demographic characteristics accompany economic development, urbanization, improvements in healthcare, and rising standards of living.

The central focus of demographic transition is the historical change in fertility and mortality rates. In the first stage, both birth rates and death rates are high, resulting in slow population growth. In the second stage, death rates decline due to improvements in nutrition, sanitation, and medical care, while birth rates remain high, leading to rapid population growth. In the third stage, birth rates begin to decline as societies become more urbanized and economically developed. In the fourth stage, both birth and death rates become low, producing stable population growth. Some scholars also recognize a fifth stage characterized by very low fertility and population aging.

Statement I, which includes fertility, is correct because fertility change is one of the core components of demographic transition. Although migration is not a primary element of the theory, fertility is an essential aspect of demographic change considered within the framework.

Statement II is also correct because demographic transition is closely linked to changes in mortality and the resulting transformation of age structure. As mortality declines and life expectancy increases, the proportion of children, working-age adults, and elderly people changes significantly. Population aging becomes a prominent feature in the later stages of demographic transition.

Statement III is not correct because migration is not one of the fundamental variables around which the demographic transition model was originally constructed. The theory primarily focuses on birth and death rates rather than migration patterns.

Statement IV is also incorrect because although demographic transition influences age composition, sex composition is not a central element of the theory. The model was developed to explain changes in fertility, mortality, population growth, and age structure rather than shifts in the male-female ratio.

The demographic transition framework has been widely used to understand population change in Europe, North America, Asia, Latin America, and other parts of the world. It highlights how declining mortality, changing fertility behavior, and evolving age structures are interconnected aspects of socio-economic development. Since statements I and II are correct, the correct answer is Option (4) I and II are correct.

8. Which one of the following stages of the demographic transition model predicts a high birth rate but a low death rate? (DEC 2013)

(1) First stage
(2) Second stage
(3) Third stage
(4) Late-second stage

Correct Answer: (2) Second stage

The Demographic Transition Model (DTM) explains the transformation of population growth patterns as societies progress from traditional agrarian economies to modern industrial and urbanized economies. The model describes changes in birth rates, death rates, and population growth through a series of stages associated with economic and social development.

In the first stage, both birth rates and death rates are high. Frequent famines, poor sanitation, limited medical knowledge, and high infant mortality keep population growth relatively low despite high fertility levels. This stage is characteristic of pre-industrial societies.

The second stage is marked by a significant decline in death rates while birth rates remain high. Improvements in food supply, public health measures, sanitation, clean drinking water, transportation, and medical facilities reduce mortality, especially infant and child mortality. Since birth rates continue to remain high during this period, the gap between birth rates and death rates widens considerably, leading to rapid population growth. This stage is often referred to as the phase of population explosion because the population increases at an exceptionally fast rate.

In the third stage, birth rates begin to decline due to urbanization, increased literacy, changing social values, improved status of women, access to contraception, and rising living standards. Death rates remain low, resulting in a slowing rate of population growth.

In the fourth stage, both birth rates and death rates are low, producing a relatively stable population. Some scholars identify a fifth stage, characterized by very low fertility rates and population aging.

The key feature highlighted in the question is the coexistence of a high birth rate and a low death rate. This combination is the defining characteristic of the second stage of the demographic transition model. During this stage, fertility behavior has not yet adjusted to improvements in survival conditions, creating a period of rapid natural increase.

The demographic experiences of many developing countries during the twentieth century closely resembled this stage, as advances in healthcare and sanitation reduced mortality much faster than fertility. The resulting population growth became one of the major concerns in population studies and development planning.

Since the second stage is characterized by high birth rates and low death rates, the correct answer is Option (2) Second stage.

9. Net population change is determined by (JUNE 2014)

(1) Mortality
(2) Migration
(3) Fertility
(4) Both 1 and 3

Correct Answer: (4) Both 1 and 3

Net population change refers to the overall increase or decrease in the size of a population over a specific period. In demographic studies, population change is influenced by three principal components: fertility, mortality, and migration. When considering the natural change in population, the relationship between births and deaths is of primary importance.

Fertility refers to the actual reproductive performance of a population and is measured through indicators such as the Crude Birth Rate (CBR), General Fertility Rate (GFR), and Total Fertility Rate (TFR). Births add individuals to the population and contribute positively to population growth. A higher fertility rate generally leads to a larger increase in population size.

Mortality refers to deaths occurring within a population and is commonly measured through the Crude Death Rate (CDR), Infant Mortality Rate (IMR), and other mortality indicators. Deaths reduce the size of the population and act as a balancing force against fertility. The difference between births and deaths is known as natural increase, which is a major determinant of population growth.

The relationship can be expressed as:

Natural Increase = Births – Deaths

This means that net population change resulting from natural demographic processes is determined by both fertility and mortality. High fertility combined with low mortality produces rapid population growth, while low fertility and high mortality may lead to slow growth or even population decline.

Although migration is also an important component of total population change, the question specifically asks for the determinant of net population change and the correct option available combines fertility and mortality. In demographic analysis, natural population growth is fundamentally governed by the interaction between these two variables.

Population geographers and demographers use fertility and mortality trends to study demographic transition, population projections, age structure changes, and long-term population dynamics. Variations in these rates explain differences in population growth patterns among countries and regions and provide essential insights for planning health services, education, employment, and resource allocation.

Since births increase population and deaths decrease population, both fertility and mortality together determine net population change, making Option (4) Both 1 and 3 the correct answer.

10. Which of the following conditions is characterised by the second stage of Demographic Transition? (JUNE 2014)

(1) Low birth rate, high death rate
(2) High birth rate, high death rate
(3) High birth rate, declining death rate
(4) Low birth rate, low death rate

Correct Answer: (3) High birth rate, declining death rate

The Demographic Transition Model (DTM) is a widely accepted theory in population geography and demography that explains how population growth changes as a society progresses from a traditional agrarian economy to a modern industrialized economy. The model describes a sequence of stages characterized by changing patterns of birth rates, death rates, and population growth.

The second stage of demographic transition is marked by a high birth rate combined with a rapidly declining death rate. This decline in mortality occurs because of improvements in public health, sanitation, nutrition, food supply, transportation, clean drinking water, and medical facilities. Diseases become better controlled, infant mortality decreases, and life expectancy rises. Despite these improvements, social traditions, cultural values, and limited access to family planning often keep birth rates at a high level.

The coexistence of high fertility and falling mortality produces a large gap between births and deaths. As a result, the population grows very rapidly during this stage. This phase is often referred to as the period of population explosion because the rate of natural increase reaches its maximum level. Many developing countries experienced this stage during the twentieth century as healthcare improvements reduced mortality before fertility rates began to decline.

Option (2), which indicates high birth rates and high death rates, represents the first stage of demographic transition, typical of pre-industrial societies. Option (4), characterized by low birth rates and low death rates, corresponds to the fourth stage, where population growth becomes stable. Option (1), low birth rates and high death rates, does not accurately describe any standard stage of the demographic transition model.

The demographic transition framework highlights the relationship between economic development and demographic change. In the second stage, mortality falls much faster than fertility, leading to accelerated population growth and significant changes in population size, age structure, and resource demands. The defining characteristic of this stage is the combination of high birth rates and declining death rates, making Option (3) the correct answer.

11. The stages of inception in the dynamics of urban growth refers to (JUNE 2014)

(1) The factor which gives rise to a city in a particular place
(2) The process through which separate functional districts are carved out
(3) The outward, often radial, movement of activities from the centre
(4) The pattern of forcing activities out of an area

Correct Answer: (1) The factor which gives rise to a city in a particular place

The study of urban growth dynamics examines how cities originate, develop, expand, differentiate, and transform over time. Urban geographers often analyze cities as evolving entities whose growth is influenced by economic, social, political, cultural, and environmental factors. One of the earliest phases in this process is known as the stage of inception.

The stage of inception refers to the origin or initial emergence of a city at a specific location. It focuses on the factors that lead to the establishment of an urban settlement in a particular place. These factors may include a favorable geographic location, availability of water resources, strategic military importance, trade routes, transportation facilities, mining activities, industrial development, religious significance, administrative functions, or other locational advantages. The inception stage is concerned with understanding why a settlement first develops into a town or city.

Many historic cities originated because of their advantageous sites and situations. River valley cities often emerged due to access to water and fertile land, while port cities developed because of maritime trade opportunities. Some cities arose around religious centers, administrative capitals, mining regions, or transportation junctions. The factors responsible for their origin form the basis of the inception stage in urban growth.

Option (2) refers to the process of functional differentiation, where different parts of a city develop specialized functions such as residential, commercial, industrial, or institutional activities. This is generally associated with later stages of urban development rather than inception.

Option (3) describes the outward expansion or spatial spread of urban activities from the central area, a process commonly associated with urban growth, suburbanization, and metropolitan expansion. This occurs after the city has already been established.

Option (4) relates to processes such as displacement, decentralization, or relocation of activities from one area to another, which are features of advanced urban evolution rather than city origin.

Urban growth is often viewed as a sequence beginning with inception, followed by expansion, differentiation, decentralization, and metropolitan development. The inception stage specifically concerns the initial factors responsible for the birth of a city at a particular location. Since the question asks about the meaning of the stage of inception in urban growth dynamics, the correct answer is Option (1) The factor which gives rise to a city in a particular place.

12. A process of population deconcentration away from large urban settlements to non-metropolitan areas is termed as (JUNE 2014)

(1) Urban dispersal
(2) Urban sprawl
(3) Counter-urbanisation
(4) Suburbanisation

Correct Answer: (3) Counter-urbanisation

Counter-urbanisation refers to the movement of population and economic activities from large metropolitan cities and major urban centres to smaller towns, rural areas, and non-metropolitan regions. The concept emerged prominently in developed countries during the latter half of the twentieth century when researchers observed that some large cities were experiencing slower growth or even population decline, while smaller settlements were attracting migrants. This process represents a reversal of the long-standing trend of urbanisation, in which people move from rural areas to cities in search of employment, education, and better living conditions.

The phenomenon is often associated with improvements in transportation and communication technologies, which allow people to reside farther from major cities while maintaining access to employment and services. Rising urban land prices, traffic congestion, environmental pollution, overcrowding, and the increasing desire for a better quality of life also encourage migration towards smaller settlements. In many cases, retired individuals, professionals working remotely, and families seeking affordable housing contribute significantly to this movement.

The term gained academic importance through the works of geographers such as Brian J. L. Berry, who examined changing population patterns in developed countries. Counter-urbanisation differs from suburbanisation, which involves movement from the urban core to suburban areas that remain within the metropolitan region. It is also different from urban sprawl, which refers to the uncontrolled outward expansion of urban built-up areas into surrounding rural land. While urban dispersal is a general expression for the spreading of urban population, counter-urbanisation specifically denotes migration from large metropolitan centres to smaller urban or rural settlements.

In the context of the urban life cycle model, counter-urbanisation is often viewed as a stage following urbanisation and suburbanisation, reflecting changing economic structures, technological advancements, and lifestyle preferences. The process has been observed in several countries including the United Kingdom, the United States, Canada, and parts of Western Europe, where population growth rates in smaller towns have at times exceeded those of major metropolitan regions.